Introduction in human anatomy
2. Anatomy • Definition - anatome = up (ana) + cutting (tome) • Disciplines of anatomy – Macroscopic – Microscopic – Developmental – Neuroanatomy • Approach to study of gross anatomy Upper extremity Back Head and neck Thorax Abdomen Pelvis and perineum Lower extremity
3. Basis for Terminology • Terms informative • Nomina anatomica • Use of eponyms Use correct terminology on exams; avoid nonspecific, general terms, like
Students will be able to gain a better understanding and application of medical terminology in relation general Anatomy about:
Brief History
Medical Terminology
Anatomical Planes, Directions and Movements.
Students will be able to gain a better understanding and application of medical terminology in relation general Anatomy about:
Brief History
Medical Terminology
Anatomical Planes, Directions and Movements.
Definition of human anatomy, various terms used in anatomy, planes of human body, various positions of human body, subdivisions of human anatomy, body cavities and regions of human body, conclusion .
Anatomic terminology, anatomical position, anatomical planes, anatomical term...Dr Shahid Alam
Anatomic terminology, anatomical position, anatomical planes, anatomical term, language of anatomy, Anatomy lecture BD Chaurasia, Snell Anatomy By Dr Shahid Alam
My first lecture on anatomy for B.Sc Nursing I year students. My PPT covers introductory part, the anatomical and directional terms used. Hope you like it.
Definition of human anatomy, various terms used in anatomy, planes of human body, various positions of human body, subdivisions of human anatomy, body cavities and regions of human body, conclusion .
Anatomic terminology, anatomical position, anatomical planes, anatomical term...Dr Shahid Alam
Anatomic terminology, anatomical position, anatomical planes, anatomical term, language of anatomy, Anatomy lecture BD Chaurasia, Snell Anatomy By Dr Shahid Alam
My first lecture on anatomy for B.Sc Nursing I year students. My PPT covers introductory part, the anatomical and directional terms used. Hope you like it.
Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology as per the curriculum of CTEVT
Disclaimer: The images included in the slides are the properties of their respective owners. I do not own any of the images.
this ppt will help to all medical students for understand the medical anatomical terminology & will help to enhance the basic knowledge of human anatomy.
(source of this ppt is BD Chaurasia's handbook of general anatomy 5th edition & internet website)
astigmatism
AstigmatismAstigmatism Walter Huang, ODWalter Huang, OD Yuanpei UniversityYuanpei University Department of OptometryDepartment of Optometry
2. DefinitionDefinition When parallel rays of light enter the eyeWhen parallel rays of light enter the eye ((with accommodation relaxedwith accommodation relaxed) and do) and do notnot come to a single point focus on or nearcome to a single point focus on or near the retinathe retina
3. OpticsOptics Power in thePower in the horizontalhorizontal plane projects aplane projects a verticalvertical focal line imagefocal line image Power in thePower in the verticalvertical plane projects aplane projects a horizontalhorizontal focal line imagefocal line image
4. OpticsOptics Refraction of light taking place at a toricRefraction of light taking place at a toric surface: the conoid of Sturmsurface: the conoid of Sturm
TONOMETRY • Tonometry is the procedure performed to determine the intraocular pressure (IOP).
3. CLASSIFICATION TONOMETRY DIRECT INDIRECT Indentation Applanation Manometer
4. APPLANATION Contact Non-contact Goldmann Perkins Air-puff Pulse air
5. INDENTATION TONOMETER • It is based on fundamental fact that plunger will indent a soft eye more than hard eye. • The indentation tonometer in current use is that of Schiotz . • It was devised in 1905 and continued to refine it through 1927.
6. PROCEDURE • Patient should be anaesthetising with 4% lignocaine or 0.5% proparacaine. • with the patient in supine position, looking up at a fixation target while examiners separates the lids and lower the tonometer plate to rest on the cornea so that plunger is free to move. •
. Introduction Biomicroscope derives its name from the fact that it enables the practitioner to observe the living tissue of eye under magnification. It not only provides magnified view of every part of eye but also allows quantitative measurements and photography of every part for documentation.
3. • The lamp facilitates an examination which looks at anterior segment, or frontal structures, of the human eye, which includes the –Eyelid –Cornea –Sclera –Conjunctiva –Iris –Aqueous –Natural crystalline lens and –Anterior vitreous.
4. Important historical landmarks De Wecker 1863 devised a portable ophthalmomicroscope . Albert and Greenough 1891,developed a binocular microscope which provided stereoscopic view. Gullstrand ,1911 introduced the illumination system which had for the first time a slit diapharm in it Therefore Gullstrand is credited with the invention of slit lamp.
1. Introduction Gross anatomy Layers Blood supply, drainage and nerve supply
2. INTRODUCTION • Sclera forms posterior 5/6th of external tunic , connective tissue coat of eyeball. • it continues with duramater and cornea • Its whole surface covered by tenon’s capsule • Anteriorly covered by- bulbar conjunctiva • Inner surface lies in contact with choroid • With a potential suprachoroidal space in between
3. Equa THICKNESS OF SCLERA
4. • Thickness varies with individual, with age • Thinner- children, elder, F> M • Thickest posteriorly • Gradually becomes thinner when traced anteriorly • Thin at insertion of extraocular muscle
The pupil is an opening located in the center of the iris that allows light to enter the retina. • Its function is to control the amount of light entering the eye and it does this via contraction (miosis) and dilation (mydriasis) under the influence of the autonomic nervous system
3. • The iris is a contractile structure, consisting mainly of smooth muscle, surrounding the pupil. Light enters the eye through the pupil, and the iris regulates the amount of light by controlling the size of the pupil.
4. The iris contains two groups of smooth muscles: a circular group called the sphincter pupillae. and a radial group called the dilator pupillae.
5. Parasympathetic pathway • First Order – Retina to Pretectal Nucleus in B/S (at level of Superior colliculus) Second Order – Pretectal nucleus to E/W nucleus (bilateral innervation!) Third Order – E/W nucleus to Ciliary Ganglion Fourth Order – Ciliary Ganglion to Sphincter pupillae (via short ciliary nerves) • • •
The tear film constitutes Three layers :- An outermost lipid (oily) layer An aqueous (watery) layer that makes up 90% of the tear film volume; and A mucin layer that coats the corneal surface.
3. To form smooth optical surface on cornea. To keep the surface of cornea & conjunctiva moist It serve as lubricant It transfer oxygen Provide antibacterial action Wash debris out It provides a pathway for WBC in case of injury
4. Functions of lipid layer Retards evaporation of tear film Prevents the overflow of tears
5. Function of Aqueous Layer Flushes, buffers and lubricates the corneal surface Delivers oxygen and other nutrients to the corneal surface Wash out debris Delivers antibacterial enzymes and antibodies such as lysozyme.
6. Functions of Mucin Layer Spreads tears over corneal surface. Protects the cornea against foreign substances . Makes corneal surface smooth by filling in surface irregularities
Introduction Transparent,avascular,watch-glass like structure. Forms 1/6th part of outer fibrous coat (Sclera) It is the major refracting surface of the eye
3. Dimensions + Avg horizontal dia =11.75 mm (ant surface) + Avg vertical dia = 11 mm (ant surface ) + Avg dia (post surface)= 11.5 mm + Thickness(centre) =0.52mm + Thickness(peripheral) = 0.67mm + Radius of curvature (ant surface) = 7.8mm + Radius of curvature (post surface)= 6.5mm + Refractive power (ant surface) = +48D + Refractive power(post surface)= - 5D + R.I = 1.376
4. Histology + Epithelium + Bowman’s membrane + Stroma + Dua’s layer + Descemet’s membrane + Endothelium
5. Epithelium + Made up of stratified squamous epithelium + Thickness - 50-90 um + 5-6 layers of cells + Regenerative, entire epithelial layer is replaced every 6-8 days + Made up of 3 types of cells - basal,wing, flattened cells + Cells are attached by to each other by means of desmosomes & maculi occludents
6. Bowman’s membrane + Acellular,Non regenerative + Made up of condensed collagen fibrils. + Thickness - 12um + Resistant to infection & injury.
LIMBUS… • The limbus forms the border between the transparent cornea and opaque sclera, contains the pathways of aqueous humour outflow, and is the site of surgical incisions for cataract and glaucoma
2. Anatomical Limbus: Circumcorneal transitional zone of the conjunctivocorneal & corneoscleral junction Conjunctivo-corneal junction: • Bulbar conjunctiva is firmly adherent to underlying structures • Substantia propria of the conjunctiva stops here but its epithelium continues with that of the cornea. Sclero-corneal junction: • Transparent corneal lamellae become continuous • With the oblique, circular and opaque fibres of sclera
3. CONTINUE…. • In the area near limbus, the conjunctiva, tenon’s capsule & the episcleral tissue are fused into a dense tissue which is strongly adherent to corneo scleral junction.It is preferred site for obtaining a firm hold of the eyeball during ocular surgery. • The limbus is a common site for the occurrence of corneal epithelial neoplasm. • The Limbus contains radially oriented fibrovascular ridge known as the palisades of Vogt that may harbour a stem cell population. The palisades of Vogt are more common in the superior and inferior quadrants around the eye
Diagnosis, Management, and Surgery by Adam J. Cohen, Michael Mercandetti & Brian G. Brazzo. The dry eye , a practical approach by Sudi Patel & Kenny J Blades. Jack J Kanski’s clinical ophthalmology Clinical Anatomy of the Eye by Richard S. Snell & Michael A. Lemp.
3. It is concerned with the tear formation & transport. Lacrimal passage includes : Lacrimal gland Conjunctival sac Lacrimal puncta Lacrimal canaliculi Lacrimal sac Nasolacrimal duct
4. The following components of the lacrimal apparatus are discussed : Embryology Osteology Secretory system Excretory system Physiology
5. Ectodermal origin Solid epithelial buds(first 2 months) Supero
Extraocular musles(EOM) They are six in number Four recti: Superior rectus Inferior rectus Medial rectus Lateral rectus Two oblique muscles: Superior oblique Inferior oblique
3. SUPERIOR RECTUS MUSCLE . Origin Superior part of common annular tendon of Zinn Course Passes anterolaterally beneath the levator At 23 degrees with the globe ‘s AP axis Pierces Tenon s capsule Insertion into sclera by flat tendinous 10 mm broad insertion 7.7 mm behind sclero-corneal junction. 42 mm long 9 mm wide
4. Nerve supply Sup division of 3rd N Blood Supply Lateral Muscular br. of Ophthalmic A APPLIED: SR loosely bound to LPS muscle. • During SR resection- eyelid may be pulled forward narr owing palpebral fissure • In hypotropia pseudoptosis may be present Origin of SR and MR are closely attached to the dural sheat h of the optic nerve pain during upward & inward movements of the globe in RETROBULBAR NEURITIS
Diseases of sclera
2. anatomy • Sclera posterior 5/6th opaque part of the external fibrous tunic of the eyeball.
3. • outer surface }covered by Tenon's capsule. • anterior part } covered by bulbar conjunctiva.
4. Its inner surface lies in contact with choroid with a potential suprachoroidal space in between
5. Thickness of sclera. • thinner }children and in females Sclera • thickest} posteriorly (1mm) • gradually becomes thin when traced anteriorly. • thinnest } insertion of extraocular muscles (0.3 mm). • Lamina cribrosa is a sieve-like sclera from which fibres of optic nerve pass.
6. Apertures of sclera • Anterior • Anterior ciliary vessels • Middle • four vortex veins (vena verticosae) • Posterior • Optic nerve • Long & short ciliary nerves
7. Layers of sclera sclera episclera Sclera proper Lamina fusca thin, dense vascularised layer of connective tissue fibroblasts, macrophages and lymphocytes avascular structure dense bundles of collagen fibres. innermost blends with suprachoroidal and supraciliary laminae of the uveal tract. brownish in colour presence of pigmented cells.
Main physiologic function of cornea is to act as a major refracting medium, so that a clear retinal image is formed. • Normal corneal transparency is result of • 1.anatomical factor such as uniform and regular arrangement of corneal epithelium, peculiar arrangement of corneal lamella and corneal vascularity 2.Physiological factor [ie] relative state of corneal dehydration.
3. • Therefore, any process which upsets the anatomy or physiology of cornea will cause LOSS OF TRANSPARENCY to some degree.
4. FACTORS AFFECTING CORNEAL TRANSPARENCY • CORNEAL EPITHELIUM &TEAR FLIM • ARRANGEMENT OF STROMAL LAMELLA • CORNEAL VASCULARIZATION • CORNEAL HYDRATION • CELLULAR FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPARENCY
CONJUNCTIVA: ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, SYMPTOMATOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION Pranay Shinde DNB Resident Deen Dayal Upadhyay Hospital,New Delhi
2. ANATOMY It is the mucous membrane covering the under surface of the lids and anterior part of the eyeball upto the cornea.
3. Parts of conjunctiva • Palpebral; covering the lids—firmly adherent. • Forniceal; covering the fornices—loose—thrown into folds. • Bulbar; covering the eyeball—loosely attached except at limbus.
4. Palpebral conjunctiva • Subtarsal sulcus 2mm from posterior edge of the lid margin. • Richly vascular. • Extremely thin. • Strongly bound to the tarsal plate.
5. Palpebral conjunctiva is subdivided into three parts: 1)Marginal 2)Tarsal 3)Orbital
6. Conjunctival fornices • Transitional region between palpebral and bulbar conjunctivae. • Superior fornix 10 mm from limbus. • Inferior fornix 8 mm from limbus. • Lateral fornix 14mm from limbus. • Medially absent. • Ducts of lacrimal glands open into lateral part of superior fornix.
q Colour Vision Deficiency Presented by : Optometrist (intern) Asma Al-Jroudi Saudi Arabia, Riyadh, King Abdulaziz University Hospital 30 Dec 14
2. • What Is Color Vision Deficiency? • Causes Of Color Vision Deficiency • Types Of Color Vision Deficiency • Tretments Of Color Vision Deficiency • Ishihara’s Test • Conclousion
3. What is Colour Blindness? • Color blindness, or color vision deficiency, is the inability or decreased ability to see color, or perceive color differences, under normal lighting conditions. •This condition results from an absence of color- sensitive pigment in the cone cells of the retina, the nerve layer at the back of the eye.
4. What is Colour Blindness? • Cones are the coulored light receptors in back of the eye: Red light receptors, Blue light receptors and Green light receptors. • Colour blindness occurs when one or more of the cone types are defected.
5. Causes of Color Blindness • Genetic: Many more men are affected than women. • Acquired : Chronic illness, Accidents, Medications and Age.
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Lecturer: Tatyana V. Ryazantseva
2. Outer eye: Eyelids The eyelids fulfill two main functions: protection of the eyeball secretion, distribution and drainage of tears
3. Lid movement The levator extends from an attachment at the orbital apex to attachments at the tarsal plate and skin. ● The lids are securely attached at either end to the bony orbital margin by the medial and lateral palpebral ligaments. Trauma to the medial ligament causes the lid to flop forward and laterally, impairing function and cosmesis.
4. Innervation - Sensory innervation is from the trigeminal (fifth) cranial nerve, via the ophthalmic division (upper lid) and maxillary division (lower lid). - The orbicularis oculi is innervated by the facial (seventh) nerve. - The levator muscle in the upper lid is supplied by the oculomotor (third) nerve.
5. Blood supply and lymphatics The eyelids are supplied by an extensive network of blood vessels which form an anastomosis between branches derived from the external carotid artery via the face and from the internal carotid artery via the orbit.
6. Blood supply and lymphatics Lymphatic fluid drains into the preauricular and submandibular nodes. Preauricular lymphadenopathy is a useful sign of infective eyelid swelling (especially viral).
Anatomy and Physiology of Aqueous Humor Sumit Singh Maharjan
2. Anatomy
3. Angle of anterior chamber
4. Angle of the Anterior chamber
5. Gonioscopic grading of Angle
6. Aqueous Outflow system
7. Trabecular meshwork
8. Functions of Aqueous Humor • Maintenance of Intraocular pressure • Metabolic role cornea lens vitreous and retina • Optical function • Clearing function
9. Physicochemical properties • volume: 0.31ml (0.25ml in Ant. Chamber and 0.06 in post chamber) • Refractive index: 1.336 • Density: slightly greater than water, its viscocity is 1.025-1.040 • Osmotic pressure: slightly hyperosmotic to plasma by 3-5mosm/l • PH: 7.2 • Rate of formation: 2-2.5microliter/min
10. Biochemical composition • Water: 99.9% • Proteins: 5-16mg/100ml • Amino acids: aqueous/plasma concentration varies from 0.08-3.14 • Non colloidal constituents: conc. of ascorbate, pyruvate, lactate in higher am
Vitreous humour
1. Vitreous Humour
2. General features Vitreous humour is an inert ,transparent , colourless, jellylike, hydrophilic gel that serves the optical functions and also acts as important supporting structures for the eyeball. The vitreous cavity is bounded by anteriorly by the lens and ciliary body and posteriorly by the retina Its weighs nearly 4g Vitreous is an extacellular material composed of approximately 99 per cent water
3. Structure The vitreous body is the largest and simplest connective tissue present as a single piece in the human body Divided into three parts- 1. The hyaloid layer or membrane 2. The cortical vitreous and 3. The medullary vitreous
Vitamins all
1. Vitamins. Definition - Organic compound required in small amounts. Vitamin A Vitamin B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12 Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K A few wordsabout each.
2. Sourcesin diet - Many plants(photoreceptors), also meat, especially liver. Fat soluble, so you can get too much, or too littleif absorption isaproblem. Vitamin A - Retinol Retinol (vitamin A) Someuses: Vision (11-cis-retinol bound to rhodopsin detectslight in our eyes). Regulating genetranscription (retinoic acid receptorson cell nuclei arepart of a system for regulating transcription of mRNAsfor anumber of genes).
Tear film
1. TEAR FILM
2. The outer most layer of the cornea. It is the exposed part of the eyeball. FUNCTION It provide smooth optical surface It serves to keep the surface of cornea and conjunctiva moist. It serves as a lubricant for the preocular surface and lids It transfer oxygen from the air to the cornea Prevent infection due to the presence of antibacterial substance like lysozymes,and other protein. It wash away debris and irritants Provides pathway to WBC in case of injury.
3. LAYERS OF TEAR FILM It consist of three layers: 1.Lipid layer 2.Aqueous layer 3.Mucoid layer 1.LIPID LAYER
Presentation by Jared Jageler, David Adler, Noelia Duchovny, and Evan Herrnstadt, analysts in CBO’s Microeconomic Studies and Health Analysis Divisions, at the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists Summer Conference.
This session provides a comprehensive overview of the latest updates to the Uniform Administrative Requirements, Cost Principles, and Audit Requirements for Federal Awards (commonly known as the Uniform Guidance) outlined in the 2 CFR 200.
With a focus on the 2024 revisions issued by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), participants will gain insight into the key changes affecting federal grant recipients. The session will delve into critical regulatory updates, providing attendees with the knowledge and tools necessary to navigate and comply with the evolving landscape of federal grant management.
Learning Objectives:
- Understand the rationale behind the 2024 updates to the Uniform Guidance outlined in 2 CFR 200, and their implications for federal grant recipients.
- Identify the key changes and revisions introduced by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) in the 2024 edition of 2 CFR 200.
- Gain proficiency in applying the updated regulations to ensure compliance with federal grant requirements and avoid potential audit findings.
- Develop strategies for effectively implementing the new guidelines within the grant management processes of their respective organizations, fostering efficiency and accountability in federal grant administration.
Many ways to support street children.pptxSERUDS INDIA
By raising awareness, providing support, advocating for change, and offering assistance to children in need, individuals can play a crucial role in improving the lives of street children and helping them realize their full potential
Donate Us
https://serudsindia.org/how-individuals-can-support-street-children-in-india/
#donatefororphan, #donateforhomelesschildren, #childeducation, #ngochildeducation, #donateforeducation, #donationforchildeducation, #sponsorforpoorchild, #sponsororphanage #sponsororphanchild, #donation, #education, #charity, #educationforchild, #seruds, #kurnool, #joyhome
Canadian Immigration Tracker March 2024 - Key SlidesAndrew Griffith
Highlights
Permanent Residents decrease along with percentage of TR2PR decline to 52 percent of all Permanent Residents.
March asylum claim data not issued as of May 27 (unusually late). Irregular arrivals remain very small.
Study permit applications experiencing sharp decrease as a result of announced caps over 50 percent compared to February.
Citizenship numbers remain stable.
Slide 3 has the overall numbers and change.
ZGB - The Role of Generative AI in Government transformation.pdfSaeed Al Dhaheri
This keynote was presented during the the 7th edition of the UAE Hackathon 2024. It highlights the role of AI and Generative AI in addressing government transformation to achieve zero government bureaucracy
Jennifer Schaus and Associates hosts a complimentary webinar series on The FAR in 2024. Join the webinars on Wednesdays and Fridays at noon, eastern.
Recordings are on YouTube and the company website.
https://www.youtube.com/@jenniferschaus/videos
Russian anarchist and anti-war movement in the third year of full-scale warAntti Rautiainen
Anarchist group ANA Regensburg hosted my online-presentation on 16th of May 2024, in which I discussed tactics of anti-war activism in Russia, and reasons why the anti-war movement has not been able to make an impact to change the course of events yet. Cases of anarchists repressed for anti-war activities are presented, as well as strategies of support for political prisoners, and modest successes in supporting their struggles.
Thumbnail picture is by MediaZona, you may read their report on anti-war arson attacks in Russia here: https://en.zona.media/article/2022/10/13/burn-map
Links:
Autonomous Action
http://Avtonom.org
Anarchist Black Cross Moscow
http://Avtonom.org/abc
Solidarity Zone
https://t.me/solidarity_zone
Memorial
https://memopzk.org/, https://t.me/pzk_memorial
OVD-Info
https://en.ovdinfo.org/antiwar-ovd-info-guide
RosUznik
https://rosuznik.org/
Uznik Online
http://uznikonline.tilda.ws/
Russian Reader
https://therussianreader.com/
ABC Irkutsk
https://abc38.noblogs.org/
Send mail to prisoners from abroad:
http://Prisonmail.online
YouTube: https://youtu.be/c5nSOdU48O8
Spotify: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/libertarianlifecoach/episodes/Russian-anarchist-and-anti-war-movement-in-the-third-year-of-full-scale-war-e2k8ai4
Up the Ratios Bylaws - a Comprehensive Process of Our Organizationuptheratios
Up the Ratios is a non-profit organization dedicated to bridging the gap in STEM education for underprivileged students by providing free, high-quality learning opportunities in robotics and other STEM fields. Our mission is to empower the next generation of innovators, thinkers, and problem-solvers by offering a range of educational programs that foster curiosity, creativity, and critical thinking.
At Up the Ratios, we believe that every student, regardless of their socio-economic background, should have access to the tools and knowledge needed to succeed in today's technology-driven world. To achieve this, we host a variety of free classes, workshops, summer camps, and live lectures tailored to students from underserved communities. Our programs are designed to be engaging and hands-on, allowing students to explore the exciting world of robotics and STEM through practical, real-world applications.
Our free classes cover fundamental concepts in robotics, coding, and engineering, providing students with a strong foundation in these critical areas. Through our interactive workshops, students can dive deeper into specific topics, working on projects that challenge them to apply what they've learned and think creatively. Our summer camps offer an immersive experience where students can collaborate on larger projects, develop their teamwork skills, and gain confidence in their abilities.
In addition to our local programs, Up the Ratios is committed to making a global impact. We take donations of new and gently used robotics parts, which we then distribute to students and educational institutions in other countries. These donations help ensure that young learners worldwide have the resources they need to explore and excel in STEM fields. By supporting education in this way, we aim to nurture a global community of future leaders and innovators.
Our live lectures feature guest speakers from various STEM disciplines, including engineers, scientists, and industry professionals who share their knowledge and experiences with our students. These lectures provide valuable insights into potential career paths and inspire students to pursue their passions in STEM.
Up the Ratios relies on the generosity of donors and volunteers to continue our work. Contributions of time, expertise, and financial support are crucial to sustaining our programs and expanding our reach. Whether you're an individual passionate about education, a professional in the STEM field, or a company looking to give back to the community, there are many ways to get involved and make a difference.
We are proud of the positive impact we've had on the lives of countless students, many of whom have gone on to pursue higher education and careers in STEM. By providing these young minds with the tools and opportunities they need to succeed, we are not only changing their futures but also contributing to the advancement of technology and innovation on a broader scale.
2. Anatomy
• Definition - anatome = up (ana) + cutting (tome)
• Disciplines of anatomy
– Macroscopic
– Microscopic
– Developmental
– Neuroanatomy
• Approach to study of gross anatomy
Upper extremity Back
Head and neck Thorax
Abdomen Pelvis and perineum
Lower extremity
3. Basis for Terminology
• Terms informative
• Nomina anatomica
• Use of eponyms
Use correct terminology on exams; avoid nonspecific,
general terms, like “front,” “up,” and “behind.”
4. Disciplines of Anatomy
• Gross Anatomy: structures studied with the
naked eye.
– Systematic anatomy: organized by systems,
e.g., digestive, nervous, endocrine, etc.
– Regional anatomy: study of all structures in
an area of the body, e.g., upper extremity
bones, muscles, blood vessels, etc.
• Microscopic anatomy (histology)
• Cell biology
• Developmental anatomy (embryology)
• Pathological anatomy
• Radiologic anatomy (x-ray, CT, MRI)
• Other areas? (surgery)
5. Levels of Structural Organization
• Biochemical (atoms, molecules)
• Cellular
• Tissue
• Organ
• Organ system
• Organism
7. Anatomical Planes
• Median = vertical, front to
back in midline
• Frontal (coronal) =
vertical, perpendicular to
median
• Horizontal (transverse) =
parallel to floor,
perpendicular to median,
coronal
• Sagittal = vertical, parallel
to median
• Midsagittal (R-L)
• Parasagittal (unequal R-L)
8. Reference positions
• Anatomical position
– most widely used & accurate for all aspects
of the body
– standing in an upright posture, facing
straight ahead, feet parallel and close, &
palms facing forward
• Fundamental position
– is essentially same as anatomical position
except arms are at the sides & palms facing
the body
9. Anatomical Position
• Body erect
• Head, eyes, toes
directed forward
• Limbs at sides of body
• Palms directed
forward
10. Anatomical directional terminology
• Anterior
– in front or in the front part
• Anteroinferior
– in front & below
• Anterosuperior
– in front & above
• Posterior
– behind, in back, or in the rear
• Posteroinferior
– behind & below; in back &
below
• Posterolateral
– behind & to one side,
specifically to the outside
11. Anatomical directional
terminology
• Contralateral
– pertaining or relating to the opposite side
• Ipsilateral
– on the same side
• Bilateral
– relating to the right and left sides of the body or
of a body structure such as the right & left
extremities
12. Anatomical directional
terminology
• Inferior (infra)
– below in relation to another structure; caudal
• Superior (supra)
– above in relation to another structure; higher, cephalic
• Distal
– situated away from the center or midline of the body, or away
from the point of origin
• Proximal
– nearest the trunk or the point of origin
• Lateral
– on or to the side; outside, farther from the median or midsagittal
plane
• Medial
– relating to the middle or center; nearer to the medial or midsagittal
plane
• Median
– Relating to the middle or center; nearer to the median or
midsagittal plane
From Van De Graaff KM: Human anatomy, ed
6, New York, 2002, McGraw-Hill
13. Anatomical directional
terminology
• Caudal
– below in relation to another structure; inferior
• Cephalic
– above in relation to another structure; higher, superior
• Deep
– beneath or below the surface; used to describe relative
depth or location of muscles or tissue
• Superficial
– near the surface; used to describe relative depth or
location of muscles or tissue
14. Anatomical directional
terminology
• Prone
– the body lying face downward; stomach lying
• Supine
– lying on the back; face upward position of the body
• Dorsal
– relating to the back; being or located near, on, or toward the back,
posterior part, or upper surface of
• Ventral
– relating to the belly or abdomen, on or toward the front, anterior part of
• Volar
– relating to palm of the hand or sole of the foot
• Plantar
– relating to the sole or undersurface of the foot
15. Directional Terms
•Toward the upper partToward the upper part
•Superior CephalicSuperior Cephalic
•Toward the lower partToward the lower part
•Inferior CaudalInferior Caudal
•FrontFront
•Ventral AnteriorVentral Anterior
•BackBack
•Dorsal PosteriorDorsal Posterior
16. Directional Terms
•Front DownFront Down
•ProneProne
•Toward MidlineToward Midline
•MedialMedial
•Away from MidlineAway from Midline
•LateralLateral
•Same-IpsilateralSame-Ipsilateral
•Opposite-ContralateralOpposite-Contralateral
•BetweenBetween
•IntermediateIntermediate
•NearNear
•ProximalProximal
17. Directional Terms
•FarFar
•DistalDistal
•On the SurfaceOn the Surface
•SuperficialSuperficial
•On the InsideOn the Inside
•DeepDeep
•On the Wall of the Body CavityOn the Wall of the Body Cavity
•ParietalParietal
•On an OrganOn an Organ
•VisceralVisceral
18. The Skeleton
• Consists of
– Bones, cartilage, joints, and ligaments
• Composed of 206 named bones grouped
into two divisions
– Axial skeleton (80 bones)
– Appendicular skeleton (126 bones)
19. The Axial Skeleton
• Formed from 80
named bones
• Consists of skull,
vertebral column,
and bony thorax
Figure 7.1a
20. Planes and Sections
• A plane is an
imaginary flat
surface that passes
through the body.
• A section is one of
the 2 surfaces
(pieces) that results
when the body is cut
by a plane passing
through it.
23. Sagittal
Plane
• Sagittal plane
– divides the body or
an organ into left
and right sides
• Midsagittal plane
– produces equal
halves
• Parasagittal plane
– produces unequal
halves
Other Planes and
Sections
• Frontal or coronal plane
– divides the body or an organ into
front (anterior) and back
(posterior) portions
• Transverse(cross-sectional) or
horizontal plane
– divides the body or an organ into
upper (superior) or lower
(inferior) portions
• Oblique plane
– some combination of 2 other
planes
24. Planes and Sections of the Brain
(3-D anatomical relationships revealed)
• Horizontal
Plane
• Frontal Plane
• Midsagittal
Plane
• Superior
– towards the head
– The eyes are superior to
the mouth.
• Inferior
– away from the head
– The stomach is inferior to
the heart.
• Dorsal or Posterior
– at the back of the
body
– The brain is
posterior to the
forehead.
• Ventral or Anterior
– at the front of the
body
– The sternum is
anterior to the
heart.
25. • Medial
– nearer to the midline of
the body
– The heart lies medial to
the lungs.
• Lateral
– farther from the midline
of the body
– The thumb is on the
lateral side of the hand.
• Proximal
– nearer to the attachment of the
limb to the trunk
– The knee is proximal to the
ankle.
• Distal
– farther from the attachment of
the limb to the trunk
– The wrist is distal to the
elbow.
27. Head-Cephalic
• Face FacialFace Facial
• Eye---Ocular, orbitalEye---Ocular, orbital
•Nose---Rhino, nasalNose---Rhino, nasal
•Ear---OticEar---Otic
•Mouth---OralMouth---Oral
•Cheek----BuccalCheek----Buccal
•Chin---MentalChin---Mental
28. Neck-Cervical
Area between shoulder and base of skull.Area between shoulder and base of skull.
Includes 7 neck vertebrae.Includes 7 neck vertebrae.
““C” collar used for whiplash.C” collar used for whiplash.
30. Arm-Upper Extremity
•Armpit--- AxillaryArmpit--- Axillary
•Upper Arm---BrachialUpper Arm---Brachial
•Forearm---AntebrachialForearm---Antebrachial
•Wrist---CarpalWrist---Carpal
•Hand---ManualHand---Manual
•Palm---Metacarpal,volarPalm---Metacarpal,volar
•Front of Elbow---AntecubitalFront of Elbow---Antecubital
•Back of Elbow---Cubital OlecranalBack of Elbow---Cubital Olecranal
•Back of hand---DorsalBack of hand---Dorsal
•Finger---Digital,PhalangealFinger---Digital,Phalangeal
•Thumb---PollexThumb---Pollex
31. Leg-Lower Extremity
•Hip---CoxalHip---Coxal
•Buttock---GlutealButtock---Gluteal
•Thigh---FemoralThigh---Femoral
•Knee cap---PatellarKnee cap---Patellar
•Back of Knee---PoplitealBack of Knee---Popliteal
•Shin---CruralShin---Crural
•Calf---SuralCalf---Sural
•Ankle---TarsalAnkle---Tarsal
•Heel---CalcanealHeel---Calcaneal
•Foot------Pedal, metatarsalFoot------Pedal, metatarsal
•Top of Foot---DorsalTop of Foot---Dorsal
•Sole of Foot---PlantarSole of Foot---Plantar
•Toe---Digital,PhalangealToe---Digital,Phalangeal
•Great Toe---HalluxGreat Toe---Hallux
32. Cardinal planes of motion
• 3 basic or traditional
– in relation to the body, not in relation to the earth
• Anteroposterior or Sagittal Plane
• Lateral or Frontal Plane
• Transverse or Horizontal Plane
38. Body Cavities
• Dorsal body cavity
– Cranial & vertebral/spinal cavity
• Ventral body cavity
– Thoracic & abdominopelvic cavity
1.8a
39. Dorsal Body
Cavity
• Near dorsal surface of
body
• 2 subdivisions
– cranial cavity
• holds the brain
• formed by skull
– vertebral or spinal canal
• contains the spinal cord
• formed by vertebral
column
• Meninges line dorsal
body cavity
40. Ventral Body
Cavity
• Near ventral surface of
body
• 2 subdivisions
– thoracic cavity above
diaphragm
– abdominopelvic cavity
below diaphragm
• Diaphragm = large,
dome-shaped muscle
• Organs called viscera
• Organs covered with
serous membrane
41. Abdominopelvic Cavity
• Inferior portion of ventral body cavity below diaphragm
• Encircled by abdominal wall, bones & muscles of pelvis
42. Thoracic Cavity
• Encircled by ribs, sternum, vertebral column and muscle
• Divided into 2 pleural cavities by mediastinum
• Mediastinum contains all thoracic organs except lungs
43. Mediastinum
• Midline wall of tissue that contains heart and great
vessels, esophagus, trachea and thymus.
46. Serous Membranes
• Thin slippery membrane lines body cavities
not open to the outside
– parietal layer lines walls of cavities
– visceral layer covers viscera within the cavities
• Serous fluid reduces friction
48. Peritoneum
• Visceral peritoneum --- serous membrane that covers the
abdominal viscera
• Parietal peritoneum --- serous membrane that lines the
abdominal wall
49. Mucous Membranes
Lines body cavities open to the outside
– Respiratory system
– Digestive system
– Urinary system
– Reproductive system
50. The Body Systems
•The Skeletal SystemThe Skeletal System
•The basic framework of the body is a system of over 200The basic framework of the body is a system of over 200
bonesbones
with their joints, collectively known as the skeleton.with their joints, collectively known as the skeleton.
•Protects and supports body organs.Protects and supports body organs.
•Provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement.Provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement.
•Blood cells are formed within bones.Blood cells are formed within bones.
•Stores mineralsStores minerals..
51. The Body Systems
•The Muscular SystemThe Muscular System
Body movements are due to the action of the muscles whichBody movements are due to the action of the muscles which
areare
attached to the bones. Other types of muscles are presentattached to the bones. Other types of muscles are present
in thein the
walls of such organs as the intestine and the heart.walls of such organs as the intestine and the heart.
Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion andAllows manipulation of the environment, locomotion and
facialfacial
expression.expression.
Maintains posture.Maintains posture.
Produces heat.Produces heat.
52. The Body Systems
•The Circulatory SystemThe Circulatory System
The heart, blood vessels, lymph vessels and lymph nodes allThe heart, blood vessels, lymph vessels and lymph nodes all
make up the system whereby blood is pumped to all the bodymake up the system whereby blood is pumped to all the body
tissues, bringing with it food, oxygen and other substances, andtissues, bringing with it food, oxygen and other substances, and
carrying away waste materials.carrying away waste materials.
Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide,Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide,
nutrients, wastes, etc.nutrients, wastes, etc.
The heart pumps blood.The heart pumps blood.
53. The Body Systems
•The Digestive SystemThe Digestive System
This system comprises all organs which have to do with takingThis system comprises all organs which have to do with taking
in food and converting the useful parts of it into substances thatin food and converting the useful parts of it into substances that
the body cells can use. Examples of these organs are the mouth,the body cells can use. Examples of these organs are the mouth,
the teeth, and the alimentary tract (esophagus, stomach, intestine,the teeth, and the alimentary tract (esophagus, stomach, intestine,
and accessory organs such as the liver and the pancreas).and accessory organs such as the liver and the pancreas).
Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood forBreaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for
distribution to body cells.distribution to body cells.
Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
54. The Body Systems
•The Respiratory SystemThe Respiratory System
This includes the lungs and the passages leading to and from them.This includes the lungs and the passages leading to and from them.
The purpose of this system is to take in air, and from it extract oxygenThe purpose of this system is to take in air, and from it extract oxygen
which is then dissolved in the blood and conveyed to all the tissues.which is then dissolved in the blood and conveyed to all the tissues.
A waste product of the cells, carbon dioxide, is taken by the blood toA waste product of the cells, carbon dioxide, is taken by the blood to
the lungs, whence it is expelled to the outside air.the lungs, whence it is expelled to the outside air.
Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbonKeeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon
dioxide.dioxide.
The gaseous changes occur through the walls of the air sacs of theThe gaseous changes occur through the walls of the air sacs of the
lungs.lungs.
55. The Body Systems
•The Integumentary SystemThe Integumentary System
The word “integument” (in-teg’u-ment) means “skin.” The skinThe word “integument” (in-teg’u-ment) means “skin.” The skin
is considered by some authorities to be a separate body system. Itis considered by some authorities to be a separate body system. It
includes the hair, nails, sweat and oil glands, and other relatedincludes the hair, nails, sweat and oil glands, and other related
structures.structures.
Forms the external body covering.Forms the external body covering.
Protects deeper tissues from injury.Protects deeper tissues from injury.
Synthesis vitamin D.Synthesis vitamin D.
Site of cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors, and sweat and oilSite of cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors, and sweat and oil
glands.glands.
56. The Body Systems
•The Urinary SystemThe Urinary System
This is also called the excretory system. Its main componentsThis is also called the excretory system. Its main components
areare
the kidneys, the ureters, the bladder and the urethra. Itsthe kidneys, the ureters, the bladder and the urethra. Its
purpose ispurpose is
to filter out and rid the body of certain waste products taken byto filter out and rid the body of certain waste products taken by
thethe
blood from the cells. (Note that other waste products areblood from the cells. (Note that other waste products are
removedremoved
via the digestive and respiratory systems).via the digestive and respiratory systems).
Eliminates nitrogenous waste from the body.Eliminates nitrogenous waste from the body.
Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of theRegulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the
blood.blood.
57. The Body Systems
•The Nervous SystemThe Nervous System
The brain, the spinal cord and the nerves all make up this very complexThe brain, the spinal cord and the nerves all make up this very complex
system by which all parts of the body are controlled and coordinated.system by which all parts of the body are controlled and coordinated.
The organs of special sense (such as the eyes, ears, taste buds, and organsThe organs of special sense (such as the eyes, ears, taste buds, and organs
of smell), sometimes classed as a separateof smell), sometimes classed as a separate sensory systemsensory system, together with, together with
the sense of tough, receive stimuli from the outside world, which are thenthe sense of tough, receive stimuli from the outside world, which are then
converted into impulses that are transmitted to the brain. The brainconverted into impulses that are transmitted to the brain. The brain
determines to a great extent the body’s responses to messages from withoutdetermines to a great extent the body’s responses to messages from without
and within, and in it occur such higher functions as memory and reasoning.and within, and in it occur such higher functions as memory and reasoning.
Fast-acting control system of the body.Fast-acting control system of the body.
Responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriateResponds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate
muscles and glands.muscles and glands.
58. The Body Systems
•The Endocrine SystemThe Endocrine System
•A few scattered organs known as endocrineA few scattered organs known as endocrine
glands produce special substances calledglands produce special substances called
hormones, which regulate such body functionshormones, which regulate such body functions
as growth, food utilization within the cells, andas growth, food utilization within the cells, and
reproduction. Examples of endocrine glandsreproduction. Examples of endocrine glands
are the thyroid and pituitary glands.are the thyroid and pituitary glands.
•Glands secrete hormones that regulateGlands secrete hormones that regulate
processes such as growth, reproduction andprocesses such as growth, reproduction and
nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.
59. The Body Systems
•The Reproductive SystemThe Reproductive System
•This system includes the external sex organs and all related innerThis system includes the external sex organs and all related inner
structures which are concerned with the production of newstructures which are concerned with the production of new
individuals.individuals.
•Overall function is production of offspring.Overall function is production of offspring.
•Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glandsTestes produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands
aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract.aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract.
•Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormone; remainingOvaries produce eggs and female sex hormone; remaining
structuresstructures
serve as sites for fertilization and development of fetus.serve as sites for fertilization and development of fetus.
•Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish theMammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the
newbornnewborn..