The document provides a comprehensive overview of human anatomy, covering medical terminology, anatomical planes, directions, and movements. It details the structure and function of the integumentary system, including skin layers, hair, nails, and associated glands. Key concepts such as anatomical positions, tissue types, and movements of the body are also explained.

1. HUMAN ANATOMY
S.S Hotchandani

2. Introduction
to
Anatomy
(a)

3. What we will cover...
• Students will be able to gain a better understanding and application of
medical terminology in relation general Anatomy about:
• Brief History
• Medical Terminology
• Anatomical Planes, Directions and Movements.

4. History
 From three hundreds BC and second
century.
 Scientist, Doctors and Artist would
experiment and practice on the dead body.
 Cadavers were positioned flat on their
backs, thus making it easier to draw and
reference from that position.

5.  Many artist such as
Leonardo da Vinci
began to
study, draw
and diagram the human
body.

6. Definition
 It is a Greek word ( Ana-Tome): meaningIt is a Greek word ( Ana-Tome): meaning
cutting up.cutting up.
 AnatomyAnatomy – the study of the structure of
body parts and their relationships to one
another.

7. SUBDIVISIONS
 Gross Anatomy
 Microscopic Anatomy
 Developmental Anatomy
 Specialized Branches of Anatomy

8. Gross Anatomy
 RegionalRegional – all structures in one part of the
body (such as the abdomen or leg)
 SystemicSystemic – gross anatomy of the body
studied by system
 SurfaceSurface – study of internal structures as
they relate to the overlying skin

9. Microscopic Anatomy
 CytologyCytology – study of the cell
 HistologyHistology – study of tissues

10. Developmental Anatomy
 EmbryologyEmbryology – study of developmental
changes of the body before birth

11. Specialized Branches of
Anatomy
 Pathological anatomyPathological anatomy – study of
structural changes caused by disease
 Radiographic anatomyRadiographic anatomy – study of
internal structures visualized by X ray
 Molecular biologyMolecular biology – study of anatomical
structures at a sub-cellular level

12. Medical Terminology

13. Basic
Anatomical
Terminology

14. Basic
Anatomical
Terminology

15. Some Anatomical Directions
 Superior and Inferior
 Anterior and Posterior
 Dorsal and Ventral
 Proximal and Distal
 Medial and Lateral

16. Anatomical Position
 The anatomical position is a standardized
method of observing or imaging the body
that allows precise and consistent
anatomical references.
 When in the anatomical position, the subject
stands (Figure 1.5).
 standing upright
 facing the observer, head level
 eyes facing forward
 feet flat on the floor
 arms at the sides
 palms turned forward (ventral)

17. Positions and
Directions
Terms of position and
direction describe the
position of one body part
relative to another.
It usually along one of
the three major body
planes

18. Positions and Directions
Superior
 Refers to a structure being
closer to the head or higher
than another structure in the
body
Inferior
 Refers to a structure being
closer to the feet or lower
than another structure in the
body

19. Positions and Directions
Anterior
 Refers to a structure being more
in front than another structure in
the body
Posterior
 Refers to a structure being more
in back than another structure in
the body

20. Positions and Directions
Medial
 Refers to a structure being
closer to the midline or median
plane of the body than another
structure of the body
Lateral
 Refers to a structure being
farther away from the midline
than another structure of the
body

21. Positions and Directions
Distal
(Reference to the extremities only)
 Refers to a structure being
further away from the root of
the limb than another structure
in the limb
Proximal
(Reference to the extremities only)
 Refers to a structure being
closer to the root of the limb
than another structure in that
limb

22. Distal / Proximal Cont.
 When you divide the
skeleton into Axial (Blue)
and Appendicular
(Yellow) you can better
understand the extremities
and their roots.
Proximal
Distal

23. Positions and Directions
Superficial
 Refers to a structure being
closer to the surface of the body
than another structure
Deep
 Refers to a structure being
closer to the core of the body
than another structure

24. Positions and Directions
Ventral
 Towards the front or belly
 You Vent out or your nose and mouth.
Dorsal
 Towards the back
 Like the Dorsal fin of a dolphin.

25. Positions and Directions
Prone
 Lying face down
 Like a Pro Baseball player sliding into Home.
Supine
 Lying face up
 Lying on your spine and you can have soup poured into your mouth.
Unilateral
 Pertaining to one side of the body
Bilateral
 Pertaining to both sides of the body

26. Basic body
planes or
sections
These terms are used
for planes or sections
that cut the body,
organs, tissues, or cells

27. Example of how planes
would cut the brain

28. Anatomical Planes
 Fixed lines of reference
along which the body is
often divided or sectioned
to facilitate viewing of its
structures
 Allow one to obtain a
three-dimensional
perspective by studying
the body from different
views

29. Anatomical Planes
Sagittal plane
 The plane dividing the
body into right and
left portions
 Midsagittal or median
are names for the
plane dividing the
body into equal right
and left halves

30. Anatomical Planes
Frontal plane
 The plane dividing
the body into front
and back portions
 Also called the
Coronal plane

31. Anatomical Planes
Transverse plane
 The horizontal plane
dividing the body
into upper and lower
portions
 Also called the
Horizontal plane

32. Body planes and sections
- cut into sections along a flat surface called a plane
(also called XS – cross section)
(also called coronal)

33. Sectional Anatomy
 Describe three-dimensional structures.
 Sectional Planes:
Transverse Planes- divide the body into
superior/inferior sections.
Frontal Planes - divide the body into anterior and
posterior sections.
Sagittal Planes-divide the body into left and right
sections. Exactly equal halves- Midsagittal

34. Transverse View

35. Frontal (Coronal) Plane

36. Sagittal Plane

37. Gummy
Bear
Dissection
LAB
1. Cadaver Bear
2. Dissecting Tray
3. Scalpel

38. The End

39. Movements

40. Movements
Flexion
Extension
Hyperextension
Adduction
Abduction
Prontaion
Supination
Retraction
Protraction
Elevation
Depression
Rotation
Circumduction
External Rotation
Internal Rotation
Inversion
Eversion
Dorsiflexion
Plantarflexion
Radial Deviation
Ulnar Deviation

41. Movements
Flexion
 Bending a joint or decreasing the
angle between two bones
 In the Fetal Position we are flexing our joints
Extension
 Straightening a joint or increasing the
angle between two bones
 In the Anatomical Position we are extending our joints
Hyperextension
 Excessive extension of the parts at a
joint beyond anatomical position.

42. Flexion / Extension / Hyperextension

43. Movements
Adduction
 Moving a body part
towards the midline of the
body
Abduction
 Moving a body part away
from the midline of the
body

44. Movements
Pronation
 Turning the arm or foot
downward
 (palm or sole of the foot -
down)
 Prone
Supination
 Turning the arm or foot
upward
 (palm or sole of the foot
- up)
 Supine

45. Movements
Retraction
 Moving a part backward
Protraction
 Moving a part forward
Elevation
 Raising a part
Depression
 Lowering a part

46. Movements
Rotation
 Turning on a single axis
Circumduction
 Tri-planar, circular motion
at the hip or shoulder
Internal rotation
 Rotation of the hip or
shoulder toward the
midline
External rotation
 Rotation of the hip or
shoulder away from the
midline

47. Movements
Lateral Flexion
 Side-bending left or
right

48. Movements of the
Foot
Inversion
 Turning the sole of the foot
inward
Eversion
 Turning the sole of the foot
outward
Dorsiflexion
 Ankle movement bringing
the foot towards the shin
Plantarflexion
 Ankle movement pointing
the foot downward

49. Movements of the Wrist &
Thumb
Radial Deviation
 Movement of the wrist towards
the radius or lateral side.
Ulnar Deviation
 Movement of the wrist towards
the ulna or medial side.
Opposition
 Movement of the thumb across
the palm of the hand.

50. Additional Range of Motion

51. The End

52. The Integumentary
System

53. Integumentary System Includes:
 Skin (cutaneous membrane)
 Subcutaneous tissue below the skin
 Accessory Structures
Sweat glands
Sebaceous or oil glands
Hair
Nails

55. Anatomy of skin
1. Human skin is divided into two layers
a. epidermis (outermost)
b. dermis ( innermost)
2. separated by basement membrane (BM)
3. A layer of loose connective tissue
beneath the dermis called
hypodermis, or subcutis

56. Skin Facts
 Largest organ of the body (15% of body weight).
 Weighs about 6 pounds
 Average about 3000 square inches
 Fastest to regenerate
 Covers 1.5 – 2 square meters
 Most skin is 1 – 2 mm thick but can range from .5 – 6 m
 Receives 1/3 of the body’s blood volume

57. Major functions of skin
 Regulate body temp
 Protect underlying tissue
 Excrete H20 and salt
 Receives stimuli for touch, pain, temp change, etc.
 Immunity
 Metabolism

58. Body Temperature
 When your body temperature rises, the many
small blood vessels in the dermis dilate, blood
flow increases, and body heat is lost by
radiation.
 Also glands in the dermis produce sweat in response
to an increase in body temperature
 As sweat evaporates, water changes state from liquid
to vapor and heat is lost.
 When you are cold, the blood vessels in the skin
constrict and heat is conserved.

59. Vitamin D
 When exposed to UV light, dermis cells
produce Vitamin D that aids in absorption
of calcium into blood

60. Pimples & Wrinkles
 Pimples (acne) are a build up of dirt and
oils.
 Wrinkles occur because of getting less
elastic with age and producing less oil
becoming dryer.

61. Layers Of The Skin
 Epidermis – outer
 composed of
stratified squamous
epithelium
 Dermis – inner
 anchored to a
subcutaneous layer
 Hypodermis
 Integumentary glands
 (sweat, oil, etc.)
 Hair and Nails
Click here to copy and
Paste a micrograph of
The layers of the skin.

62. Identify the different layers of the skin
and their components

63. Epidermis
 Outer layer of skin
 Composed of stratified squamous
epithelium
 Avascular as it has no blood supply of
its own
 Oxygen and nutrients diffuse from the
underlying dermis

64. Epidermis: The outer layer of skin

66. Epidermis (cont:)
 The epidermis is a keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium.
 Five structurally different layers can be
identified:

67. • Keratinocytes (90%)- waterproofs & protects
skin, nails, hair, stratum corneum
• Melanocytes (8%)- produce melanin
• Merkel Cells- slow mechanoreceptors
• Langerhans’ Cells- immunological defense

68. Layers of the Epidermis
 The stratum basale
 The stratum spinosum,
 The stratum granulosum
 The stratum lucidum
 The stratum corneum,

69. • Stratum Corneum
• Stratum Lucidum
• Stratum
Granulosum
• Stratum Spinosum
• Stratum Basale-
(Germinativum)

71. The Stratum Basale (first layer)
 It is the deepest layer of the epidermis (closest to the
dermis).
 It consists of a single layer of columnar or cuboidal cells
which rest on the basement membrane.
 Basal cells are the stem cells of the epidermis and their
mitotic activity replenishes the cells in more superficial
layers as these are eventually shed from the epidermis.

72. The Stratum Basale (first layer cont:)
 The renewal of the epidermis takes about 3 to 4 weeks in
humans as millions of cells are produced daily.
 Cells die as they are pushed away from the source of
nourishment.
 Cells undergo keratinization as a tough protein, keratin, is
deposited within the cell.
 Keratin hardens and flattens the cells as they move outward
and it waterproofs the skin.

73. The Stratum Spinosum (second layer)
 The cells become irregularly arranged.
 The cells are often separated by narrow, translucent
clefts.
 These clefts are spanned by spine-like cytoplasmatic
extensions of the cells (hence the name of the layer
and of its cells: spinous cells), which interconnect the
cells of this layer.

74. The Stratum Granulosum (third layer)
 It consists, in thick skin, of a few layers of
flattened cells.
 Only one layer may be visible in thin skin.

75. The Stratum lucidum (fourth layer)
 It consists of several layers of flattened dead cells.
 Nuclei already begin to degenerate in the outer part
of the stratum granulosum.
 In the stratum lucidum, faint nuclear outlines are
visible in only a few of the cells. The stratum lucidum
can usually not be identified in thin skin.

76. The Stratum Corneum (fifth layer)
 It is the final layer of epidermis and there cells are
keratinized and form a layer that is about 30 cells
thick.
 Individual cells are difficult to observe because:
(1) nuclei can no longer be identified,
(2) the cells are very flat.
(3) the space between the cells has been filled with lipids, which
cement the cells together into a continuous membrane.

77. The Stratum Corneum ((fifth layer cont:)
 Closest to the surface of the epidermis, the stratum
corneum has a somewhat looser appearance.
 Cells are constantly shed from this part of the
stratum corneum. This layer makes up three fourths
of the epidermal thickness.
 The protection of the body by the epidermis is due
to the functional features of the stratum corneum.

78. Dermis or corium
 Inner layer of skin
 The dermis, or corium, consists of dense fibrous
connective tissue with numerous collagenous and elastic
fibers.
 The dermis is much thicker than the epidermis. In thick
skin, dermal papillae create a very irregular border
between epidermis and dermis.

79. Dermis: The inner layer of skin

80. Dermis

81. papillary dermis
reticular dermis

82. a. Cellular
Fibroblasts (synthesize collagen, elastin, and reticulin),
histiocytes, endothelial cells, perivascular macrophages and
dendritic cells, mast cells, smooth muscle, and cells of
peripheral nerves and their end-organ receptors.
b. Fibrous
Collagen & reticulin - provide tensile strength
Elastic fibers- provide for restoration of shape after a
deformation
c. Ground substance
glycosaminoglycans: hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, and
dermatan sulfate.

83. The Hypodermis
 Known as subcutaneous
tissue or superficial
fascia
 Has more adipose than
dermis
 Functions
energy reservoir
thermal insulation
 Hypodermic injections
into subcutaneous tissue
Hypodermis

84. This layer contains adipose tissue and serves to attach the
dermis to its underlying tissues.
Hypodermis

85. Next topic

86. 1. Hair
2. Skin glands
3. Nails
Accessory Organs of the Skin

87. Accessory Structures of the Skin
Hair
 A characteristic feature of the human skin is the
apparent lack of hair on most of the body
surface. This is actually not quite true. Most of
the skin is haired although the hair in most areas
is short, fine and only lightly pigmented.
 Truly hairless are only the palms of hands and
soles of feet, the distal phalanges and sides of
fingers and toes and parts of the external
genitalia.

88. Hair (cont:)
 In those parts of the skin which we perceive as "hairy" we find
terminal hairs. The free part of each hair is called the shaft.
 The root of each hair is anchored in a tubular invagination of
the epidermis, the hair follicle, which extends down into the
dermis and, usually, a short distance into the hypodermis.
 The hair that you groom daily is actually dead keratinized cells.
 Each hair follicle has an associated bundle of smooth muscle,
the arrector pili muscle. This muscle inserts with one end to
the papillary layer of the dermis and with the other end to the
dermal sheath of the hair follicle. This makes your hair stand
up on its end.

89. Hair Color and Texture
 Hair color is determined by the amount and type of
melanin present.
 Melanocytes become less active with age. Gray
hair is a mixture of pigmented and non-pigmented
hairs.
 Red hair results from a a modified type of melanin
that contains iron.
 The shape of the hair shaft determines texture.
 Round shaft – straight hair
 Oval shaft – wavy hair
 Flat shafts – curly or kinky hair
Perms use chemicals to flatten shafts and makes hair curly.
Alopecia is the term for hair loss.

90. Accessory Structures of the Skin
Nails
Plates of stratified squamous
epithelial cells with hard keratin
Protect distal ends of phalanges
Cells are keratinized in the nail root
Nail growth occurs in the lunula
Cuticle is a fold of stratum
corneum on the proximal end of
nail

91. Exocrine Glands
 Sebaceous glands or oil glands are simple
branched areolar glands. They secrete the sebum
(seb = oil) an oily product. Sebum is usually
secreted into a hair follicle. Sebum is a natural
skin cream: it helps hair from becoming brittle,
prevents excessive evaporation of water from the
skin, keeps the skin soft and contains a
bactericidal agent that inhibits the growth of
certain bacteria.
 Sebaceous glands are scattered all over the
surface of the skin except in the palms, soles and
the side of the feet.
 Vernix caseosa - white covering on fetus.
 Blackhead
 Pimple

92. Exocrine Glands
The exocrine gland are:
 Sweat glands or sudoriferous glands are simple coiled
tubular glands. They are divided into two principal types:
eccrine and apocrine.

93. Exocrine Glands
 Eccrine glands are the most common. Their secretory
portion can be located in the dermis or in the
hypodermis. They produce sweat, a watery mixture of
salts, antibodies and metabolic wastes. Sweat prevents
overheating of the body and thus helps regulate body
temperature.

94. Exocrine Glands
 Apocrine glands are found mainly in the skin of the
armpits, of the anogenital areas and of the areola of the
breasts. Their secretory portion can be located in the
dermis or in the hypodermis. Their excretory ducts open
into hair follicles. Their secretion is more viscous than
that of the eccrine glands. They start secreting at puberty
and may be analogous to the sexual scent glands of
other animals.

95. Exocrine Glands
 Ceruminous glands (or ear wax glands) and mammary
glands are modified apocrine sweat glands.

96. Physiology of the Skin
 Protection - the epidermis provides a barrier to
fluid loss from the body (this protective function is
impaired in patients with burns).
 barrier function - intact skin prevents the entry of
micro-organisms into the body. Antimicrobial
proteins are produced by the epidermis - they act
by piercing holes in the outer membranes of
micro-organisms.
 Resistance to wear and tear - continuous
replacement of the outer epidermal cells that
wear off - new cells are produced in the deepest
layer of the epidermis and gradually migrate
towards the surface

97.  Skin can excrete water, salt, and small amounts of
waste products such as urea.
 Vitamin D can be synthesized in skin exposed to
sunlight (vitamin D can also be obtained from the
diet)
 The skin provides a barrier to ultraviolet light. The
melanocytes contain melanin, which absorbs UV
radiation, and also distribute the pigment to
neighboring cells. Skin exposed to sunlight
becomes wrinkled and creased. Changes seem to
be due to disruption of collagen and elastin in
dermis, and loss of fibroblasts which make new
proteins.

98.  The integumentary system is well-
supplied with receptors for touch,
pain, temperature, vibration and
pressure
 Sensory information is relayed to
the central nervous system via
sensory nerves
 Social interactions are influenced
by facial expressions, blushing,
touching, etc.

99. Fun Facts
 House dust is mainly skin flakes!
 If you laid out all your skin on a flat surface, it would have
an area of about 2 square meters.
 Skin weighs about 2.5 kilograms - the largest organ in the
body.
 What hurts if you pull it, but doesn't hurt if you cut it? Your
hair, of course!
 Skin is elastic - it springs back into shape when stretched.
Some medicines (estrogen, nicotine) can pass through the
skin, but others cannot (insulin). Why is that? Because
only fat-soluble substances can enter the skin, not water-
soluble ones.
 Your hair stands on end and you develop 'goose bumps'
because there are tiny muscles attached to the hair
follicles and they contract when you are frightened or cold.

100. THANKS