The document discusses the significance of understanding individual behavior within organizations, addressing various factors that impact performance, such as personal, psychological, environmental, and organizational variables. It covers theoretical perspectives on personality and behavior, including various models and their implications for management practices. Notable theories include Freud's psychoanalytic theory, Bandura's social learning theory, and humanistic approaches, illustrating the complexity and diversity of human behavior in organizational contexts.

1. Working with
Individuals
Presented by
Rahul Mahida

2. Introduction
• An organization is basically the association of human beings
and a major problem of today’s organization is how to get
maximum possible efforts and contributions of the human
beings determining these efforts and contributions, those
responsible for managing the organization must understand the
way human beings behave. It is to be noted that the world of
human work consists of individual performing jobs in some
setting, usually in some organization
• The fact that there are tremendous differences among
individuals and among jobs is the basis of the frequently
expressed notion of “matching” people and jobs and of the
expression “round pegs in square holes” when the “match” is
not a good one. Mismatches can occur in any setting.
2

3. Variables influencing Individual Behavior
The Person
Skills & abilities
Personality
Perceptions
Attitudes
Values
Ethics
The Environment
Organization
Work group
Job
Personal life
Behavior
3

4. Personal Factors
1) Age
2) Education
3) Abilities
4) Marital Status
5) Number of Dependents
6) Creativity
7) Emotional Intelligence
Psychological Factors
1) Personality
2) Perception
3) Attitudes
4) Values
5) Learning
Organizational Systems & Resources
1) Physical Factors
2) Organizational structure & design
3) Leadership
4) Reward System
5) Work related behavior
Environmental Factors
1) Economic
2) Social norms & cultural values
3) Ethics & social Responsibility
4) Political
Individual Behavior
Founda
tions
of
Individ
ual
Behavi
or
4

5. Personal Factors
• Age: Age has impact on performance, turnover, absenteeism, productivity
and Satisfaction level
• Education: Increased levels of education serve to increase an individual’s
expectation about positive outcomes (general and specialized)
• Ability: Ability refers to an individuals capacity to perform various tasks in
a given job (intellectual and physical). Employee performance is enhanced
when there is ability-fit job
• Marital Status: it has impact on absenteeism, turnover & satisfaction
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6. • Number of Dependents: There is a correlation between number of
dependents and absenteeism and satisfaction
• Creativity : Creativity refers to the cognitive activity that results in a new or
novel way of viewing or solving a problem. They have three attributes of background
experience, personal traits and cognitive abilities (analytical skills)
• Emotional Intelligence: Emotions are an effective state of
consciousness in which joy, sorrow, fear, hate, love, surprise, and anger is expressed.
Emotions have impact on Mood, performance, Features are: Emotions are highly
focused, expressions of emotions is universal and Culture determines expression of
feelings. Emotional Intelligence helps us to monitor our emotions
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7. Environmental Factors
• Economic Factors: All work is performed within economic framework,
that both directly and indirectly, impinges on an organizational environment.
Various factors like employment opportunities, wage rates, economic outlook and
Technological change
• Cultural Environment: Cultural environment is made up of
institutions and other forces that affect society’s basic values, perceptions, work
ethics, achievement needs and effort- reward expectations, values preferences
and behavior
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8. • Ethics and Social Responsibility: Ethics refers to a system of moral
principles; a sense of right and wrong and goodness and badness of actions and the
motives and the consequences of these actions. Social Responsibility or Corporate
social Responsibility is understood as the obligation of decision makers to take actions
that protect and improve the welfare of the society as a whole, along with their own
interest
• Political Factors: The stability of Government tends to have impact on
employment opportunities and these, in turn, impact employee behavior. The political
ideology of a country affects individual behavior primarily through the relative
freedom available to the citizens
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9. Organizational Systems & Resources
• Facilities: Like lighting, ventilation, air-conditioning, décor, space for employees,
secretarial support
• Organizational structure & Design: The behavior & performance
of an individual is influenced by where that person fits into the overall structure &
design of the organization
• Leadership: A leader provides direction, assistance, advice and coaching to
individuals, due to which a system of leadership and supervision is necessary as it is a
potential source of influence
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10. • Reward System: The behavior and performance of an individual is
influenced by the reward system of his or her organization
• Work related behavior: The five stages of the individual’s stay in the
organization may be distinguished by joining in the organization, remaining with the
organization, maintaining work attendance, performing required tasks & exhibiting
organizational citizenship
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11. Psychological Factors
• Personality
• Perception
• Attitude
• Values
• learning

12. Models of Individual Behavior
12

13. Theory X and Theory Y Model
• Theory X: Assumes an individual to be lazy, non-creative
and in need of constant prodding
• Theory Y: Assumes an individual of having tremendous
potential, which effective management can lead to
availing of organizational goals
• Based on the manager’s perception of human behavior,
there may be divergence of managerial practices in the
organization
13

14. Economic and Self- actualizing Model
• Economic model: The individual is considered totally economic in
orientation. This being a scientific management concept, the idea of
standardizing jobs, specializing work functions and providing economic
benefits to those individuals who performed better at their job was
thought of.
• Self- Actualizing Model: This model assumes that the individual
is motivated by the opportunity to grow, mature and become what they
are capable of. Here individuals are thought to crave for personal
growth, job competence and self fulfillment and self actualization. The
challenge for the organization is to provide proper conditions for the
growth
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15. Behavioristic and Humanistic Model
• Behavioristic Model: The theorists are interested only in
observable behavior as contrasted with thoughts or
feelings. The model holds that all behavior is
environmentally determined (individuals can be
described solely in terms of behavior)
• Humanistic Model: Scholars believe that an individual is
more philosophical than scientific. Individuals control
their own destiny to a great degree and their potential
cannot be under estimated.
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16. Rational and Emotional Model
• Rational Model: In this model, the individual is assumed
to collect all the relevant information, analyze the data
and then arrive at a solution for the problem which has
come. That is an individual is perceived to be highly
rational entity. Humans are therefore considered to be
deliberative, serious and computational.
• Emotional Model: In this model, individuals are
understood to be guided by emotions, which most of the
times are unconscious decisions. According to Freudians
the humans are irrational and emotional due to constant
conflicts of ID and ego and super ego
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17. What is Personality?
• The overall profile or combination of characteristics
that capture the unique nature of a person as that
person reacts and interacts with others.
• Combines a set of physical and mental characteristics
that reflect how a person looks, thinks, acts, and feels.
• Predictable relationships are expected between
people’s personalities and their behaviors.

18. Meaning of Personality
• Personality refers to a set of unique characteristics that
make an individual different from others
• Personality refers to the overall profile or combination of
characteristics that capture unique nature of a person as
that person reacts and interacts with others
• Personality combines a set of physical and mental
characteristics that reflect how a person looks, thinks,
acts and feels
• Predictable relationships are expected between people’s
personality and their behavior
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19. 19
Types of
Personality
Type
Theory
Trait
Theory
Psycho-
analytic
Theory
Social
Learning
Theory
Humanistic
Theory

20. Type Theory
• In type theory,
a. individuals are categorized depending upon their physical
characteristics. A relationship was based between features of
the face or body and personality (by Kretschmer and Sheldon)
b. Another basis (by Carl Jung) was on the psychological factors of
an individual i.e. whether the individual is introvert or
extrovert
Type theories are simple as they are based on physical attributes or
psychological factors for categorization of personalities,
however they fail to reveal all complexities of a personality .
Type theory unrealistically attempt to place personality into
discrete and discontinuous categories
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21. Trait Personality
• A personality trait is understood as being an enduring attribute of a
person that appears consistently in a variety of situations.
• Trait terms include friendly, cautious, excitable, intelligent or anxious etc,
and scales such as intelligence, emotional stability, aggressiveness,
creativeness etc.
• Traits are reactions of an individual not a quality which can be possessed
• To assess a personality trait,
a. a person can describe himself by answering questions about attitudes,
feelings, behavior
b. Someone else evaluates the person’s traits from what he knows about
the individual (personality inventory) or from direct observation (rating
scale)
A trait theory is a multiple model of type theory and thus, improvement of
type theory 21

22. Criticisms of Trait theory
• Terms are difficult to define
• The results are open to considerable challenges due to
scientific reliability
• The traits are very descriptive rather than analytical
• Some theories tend to focus on isolated traits without
specifying how they are organized within the personality
• Which traits are most important and how they relate to
other traits are not explained
• Traits are abstracted from behavior however we cannot
explain behavior from the traits
22

23. Psychoanalytic Theory
• The theory was originated by Freud and he developed the first
comprehensive personality theory, a method for treating
neurotic ills and an extensive body of clinical observations
based on his experience and self analysis
• He considered mind to an iceberg where the small segment
which is above the surface of water represents conscious
experience, while the much larger mass which is below water
represents the unconscious. Freud explored this portion of
mind with the help of free association (citing whatever comes in
the mind of an individual)
• Thus , according to Freud, personality consists of three
elements namely:
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24. 24
Super
Ego
ID
Ego
Conscious
Unconscious

25. Elements of Personality
 ID is the Latin word for “It” and it refers exclusively to the
innate component of personality.
• ID is the mental agency containing everything inherited,
present at birth, and fixed in the individual’s constitution,
especially instincts
• It is raw, animalistic, unorganized, knows no rules, obeys no
rules and rains basic to the individual through out life.
• ID employs to rid the personality of tension i.e. reflex
actions and primary process.
• Reflex action the ID automatically responds to the sources
of irritation thereby removing the tension
• Primary process refers to an attempt to form a mental
image of the object which will remove the tension
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26.  Ego develops out of the ID because of the necessity for
dealing with the real world
• Ego strives to balance the desires of the ID and the realities
of the objective, outside world.
• In contract to the pleasure seeking nature of the id, the ego
operates according to the reality principle in which
instinctual energy is restrained in order to maintain the
safety of individual and integrate the person in society
• The ego is the “executive” of personality which makes
decisions, controls actions and allows thinking and
problem solving of a higher order than ID’s capabilities
permit
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27. Super ego judges whether an action is right or
wrong according to the standards of the society
• Super ego represents the internalized
representation of the values and morals of society
as taught to the child by parents and others
• ID seeks pleasure, the ego tests reality and the
super ego strives for perfection
• According to Freud, the three should work
together as a team for an individual to produce
integrated behavior
27

28. Criticisms of Psychoanalytic theory
• The approach is not based on empirically verifiable facts
• The ID, ego and superego are largely hypothetical facts
hence they fail to reflect clearly human personality and
behavior
• The theory is based on the observation of emotionally
disturbed individuals and hence does not necessarily cover
normal individuals
• Human beings are seen as essentially mechanistic and
governed by same natural laws that apply to the behavior of
other organisms
• There is no room for concepts such as free will, choice,
personal responsibility, violation, spontaneity and self
determination
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29. Social Learning Theory
• Albert Bandura’s social-cognitive approach focuses on self-efficacy
and reciprocal determinism.
• Social Learning theory stresses on the change of behavior through
learning from several sources
• Through learning one acquires knowledge, language, attitudes,
values, manual skills, fears, personality traits and self- insight
• The two ways of learning are learning through reinforcement (direct
experience) and earning by observing others (vicarious learning)
• Situation is an important determinant of behavior for this theory
• This theory focuses on behavior patterns and cognitive activities in
relation to the specific conditions which evoke, maintain or modify
the situations
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30. • The emphasis is what an individual will do in a given
situation. The variables which determine the choice
are
a. Competencies: intelligence abilities, social skills & other abilities
b. Cognitive strategies: Habitual ways of selectively attending to
information and organizing it in meaningful units
c. Outcome expectations: expectations about the consequences of
different behavior and meaning of certain stimuli
d. Subjective value outcome: similar expectations, however choosing
different behaviors due to subjective values of the outcome
e. Self Regulatory systems and plans: Individual behavior in self-
imposed goals, rules guiding behavior and self-imposed rewards for success or
punishments, and ability to plan and execute
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31. Criticisms of Social Learning theory
• Over emphasizing the importance of situational
factors in behavior to the neglect of individual
difference
• Little interest in innate differences that may
predispose characteristics of an individual
• Environmental conditions are held to be superior to
human nature
31

32. Humanistic Approach
• Humanistic personality theories reject psychoanalytic
notions
– Humanistic theories view each person as basically
good and that people are striving for self-fulfillment
– Humanistic theory argues that people carry a
perception of themselves and of the world
– The goal for a humanist is to develop/promote a
positive self-concept

33. Humanistic Approach
Carl Rogers
– We have needs for:
• Self-consistency (absence of conflict between self perceptions)
• Congruence (consistency between self-perceptions and experience)
– Inconsistency evokes anxiety and threat
– People with low self-esteem generally have poor congruence between
their self-concepts and life experiences.
• The theory focuses on individual’s potential for self-direction and
freedom of choice. The emphasis is on “here and now” rather than on
events in early childhood that may have shaped the individual’s
personality
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34. • Rogers Self Theory: Behavior is utterly dependent upon how
one perceives the world i.e. behavior is the result of immediate
events as they are perceived and interpreted by the individual.
Such approach emphasis the self and characteristics. This
theory is even referred as self theory personality because the
best vintage point for understanding behavior is from internal
frame of reference of the individual himself.
• The people are functioning as fully human beings, when they
are free at experience and satisfying their inner nature, they
show themselves to be positive and rational creatures who can
be trusted to live in harmony with themselves and others. The
humans have a natural tendency to move in direction of
differentiation, self- responsibility, co-operation and maturity.
This expression of basic nature allows the continuation and
enhancement of individual

35. • Maslow’s self actualization Theory: This theory postulates
man as a self-actualizer. By self actualization, Maslow meant the development of
full individuality in harmony with all parts of personality.
• Maslow’s humanistic psychology is based on European existential philosophy.
• Existential Philosophy is concerned with man as an individual and each person
alone is responsible for his own existence. This theory also stresses on human
consciousness, subjective feelings and personal experience as they relate to one’s
existence in the world of other people.
• The following concepts are central to the humanistic approach
a. An individual is an integrated whole
b. Animal research is irrelevant to human behavior
c. Human nature is essentially good
d. Man has creative potential
e. Psychological health of man is most important
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36. Perception
People often see the same phenomenon differently both with the
organizational context and outside the organization. For example, in
relation to a strike, a manager may perceive the immediate cause of the
strike as trivial, while the workers may see it as very serious.
• Similarly, when there is any accident in the factory, the supervisor treat it
as the carelessness of workers while the workers may treat it has high
handedness of the management and lack of adequate provisions of
security measures.
• Thus, the situations remaining the same, causes have been assigned
differently by different group of persons. In order to understand the
significance of this phenomenon, one has to understand perception and
its different aspects.

37. Perception
• Perception is the process of receiving information about and making
sense of the world around us. It involves deciding which information to
notice, how to categorize this information and how to interpret it within
the framework of our existing knowledge
• Perception is the act of seeing what is there to be seen
• Perception includes all those processes by which an individual receives
information about the environment-seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and
smelling. The study of these perceptual processes shows that their
functioning is affected by three classes of variables: the objects or events
being perceived, the environment in which perception occurs and the
individual doing the perceiving
• Stephen P. Robins has defined perception as “Perception may be defined
as a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory
impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.”
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38. Perception and Sensation :
• There has been a great deal of misunderstanding about the relationship
between sensation and perception. The physical senses vision, hearing,
touch, smell and taste are different from the perception.
• The sensation essentially deals with very elementary behavior that is
largely determined by physiological functioning.
• Perception on the other hand, is much more complex and broader than
sensation.
• It is virtually a cognitive, psychological process of sensing filtering and
modifying the raw data. As sensation plays an important role of people
in their private lives, perception plays a crucial part in organizational
life.

39. Factors influencing Perception
Individuals
Perception
Perceivers
Characteristics:
1) Needs
2) Experiences
3) Values
4) Attitudes
5) Personality
Situational Factors:
1) Physical Setting
2) Social Setting
3) Organizational
Setting
Characteristics of the
Perceived:
1) Nature
2) Size
3) Appearance
4) Location etc
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40. Attitude
• Attitudes represent beliefs, feelings and action tendencies
towards objects, ideas or people
• “By attitudes we mean the beliefs, feelings and action
tendencies of an individual or group of individuals towards
objects, ideas and people. Quite often persons and objects or
ideas become associated in the minds of individuals and as a
result of attitudes become multi-dimensional and complex”
• An attitude is mental state of readiness, learned and organized
through experience, exerting a specific influence on person’s
response to people, object and situations with which it is
related”
40

41. Nature of Attitude
• Attitudes are learned
• Attitudes refer to feelings and beliefs of an individual or group
of people
• These feelings and beliefs define one’s predispositions towards
given aspects of the world
• Attitudes endure, unless something happens
• Attitudes can fall anywhere along a continuum for very
favorable to very unfavorable
• Attitudes are organized and are core to an individual
• All people, irrespective of their status or intelligence, holds
attitude
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42. Components of Attitudes
Behavior
CognitiveAffective
42
Attitude

43. a. affective component includes feelings, sentiments,
moods and emotions about some idea, person, event or
object
b. cognitive element includes the beliefs, opinion,
knowledge or information held by the individual
c. behavioral component includes the predispositions to
get on a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of
something
• an attitude represents the interplay of a person’s
affective, cognitive and behavioral tendencies with
regard to a person, group, an event or an issue.
43

44. Values
• Value is generally used in two different ways: as a
characteristics of an object or as an attribute possessed by an
individual & through desirable..
• A value system is viewed ass a relatively permanent
perceptual frame work which influences the nature off an
individual’s behavior.
• The values are the attributes possessed by an individual &
thought desirable..
• Values are similar to attitude but are more permanent & well
built in nature..

45. Values
• Importance of values:
– Values lay the foundation for the understanding of
attitude and motivation
– Personal value system influence the perception of
individuals
– Value system influences perception
– Value system influences decision making & solution to
various problems
– Values influence the attitude & behavior

46. SOURCES OF OUR VALUE SYSTEM
• Social factors
• Personal factors
• Cultural factors
• Religious factors
• Life experience
• Role demands

47. Learning in Organizations
• Definition: A relatively permanent change in
knowledge or behavior that results from practice or
experience.
• The Learning Organization:
Organizational learning is the process through which
managers instill in all members of an organization a
desire to find new ways to improve organizational
effectiveness.

48. • Five activities are central to a learning organization:
– Encouragement of personal mastery or high self-efficacy.
– Development of complex schemas to understand work activities.
– Encouragement of learning in groups and teams.
– Communicating a shared vision for the organization as a whole.
– Encouraging systematic thinking.
Knowledge management is the ability to capitalize on the
knowledge possessed by organizational members which is not
necessarily written down anywhere or codified in formal
documents.

49. Few Prominent Theories
• Classical conditioning
• Operant conditioning
• Cognitive learning
• Social learning theories

50. Reference
• Organizational Behavior- Text, cases and games by K
Aswathappa Pages:91
50

51. Presented by
Rahul Mahida
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