This document provides an overview of basic immunology. It discusses how immunology covers the study of immune systems and has applications in many medical fields. It describes the key organs and components of the immune system, including both innate and adaptive immunity. Specific topics covered include the complement system, coagulation systems, cellular elements like macrophages and dendritic cells, cytokines, antibodies, and how antibodies contribute to defense against pathogens.
By DR. MANPREET KAUR BEHL.
Description of classificaton of immune system, immune cells, HLA, MHC complexes, antigen presentation, t-cell responses and b-cell responses, antibody, isotype switching, hypersenstivity reactions etc.
By DR. MANPREET KAUR BEHL.
Description of classificaton of immune system, immune cells, HLA, MHC complexes, antigen presentation, t-cell responses and b-cell responses, antibody, isotype switching, hypersenstivity reactions etc.
Austin Journal of Clinical Immunology is an open access, peer reviewed, scholarly journal dedicated to publish articles in all areas of immunology, asthma and allergy. The aim of the journal is to develop a knowledge sharing platform and an interactive network for immunologists, researchers, physicians, and other health professionals for exchange of scientific information in the areas of immunology.
Austin Journal of Clinical Immunology accepts original research articles, review articles, case reports, clinical images and rapid communication on all the aspects of immunology and immunotechnology.
Austin Journal of Clinical Immunology strongly supports the scientific upgradation and fortification in related scientific research community by enhancing access to peer reviewed scientific literary works. Austin Publishing Group also brings universally peer reviewed journals under one roof thereby promoting knowledge sharing, mutual promotion of multidisciplinary science.
The study in immunology provides the fundamental understanding of how the human body defend itself against foreign organisms, materials or particles that have the ability to cause harm to host tissues.
Austin Journal of Clinical Immunology is an open access, peer reviewed, scholarly journal dedicated to publish articles in all areas of immunology, asthma and allergy. The aim of the journal is to develop a knowledge sharing platform and an interactive network for immunologists, researchers, physicians, and other health professionals for exchange of scientific information in the areas of immunology.
Austin Journal of Clinical Immunology accepts original research articles, review articles, case reports, clinical images and rapid communication on all the aspects of immunology and immunotechnology.
Austin Journal of Clinical Immunology strongly supports the scientific upgradation and fortification in related scientific research community by enhancing access to peer reviewed scientific literary works. Austin Publishing Group also brings universally peer reviewed journals under one roof thereby promoting knowledge sharing, mutual promotion of multidisciplinary science.
The study in immunology provides the fundamental understanding of how the human body defend itself against foreign organisms, materials or particles that have the ability to cause harm to host tissues.
Introduction
History
Types of immunity
Tissues of immunity
Cells of immunity
Basic aspects of immunology
Major histocompatibility complex
Cytokines
Disorders of immune system
Immune responses in periodontal pathogenesis
Periodontal vaccine
Host modulation
Conclusion
References
immunity, types,Innate immunity and Adaptive Immunity, primary and secondary immune response, structure and functions of antibodies, immunoglobulins, hypergammaglobulinemia, multiple myeloma, bence jones protein, electrophoretic pattern of multiple myeloma.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
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Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
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Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
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Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
3. Immunology
• Immunology is a branch of biomedical
science that covers the study of immune
systems in all organisms.
• Immunology has applications in numerous
disciplines of medicine, particularly in the
fields of organ transplantation, oncology,
virology, bacteriology, parasitology, psychiatry,
and dermatology.
4. • Prior to the designation of immunity from the
etymological rooti mmunis, which is Latin for
"exempt"; .
• Early physicians characterized organs that
would later be proven as essential
components of the immune system.
• The important lymphoid organs of the immune
system are the thymus and bone marrow, and
chief lymphatic tissues such as spleen, tonsils,
lymph vessels, lymph nodes, adenoids,
and liver.
5. • Many components of the immune system are
typically cellular in nature and not associated
with any specific organ.
• But rather are embedded or circulating in
various tissues located throughout the body.
6. Components of immune system
• Several plasma protein and cellular systems
contribute to non-adaptive immunity:
• Plasma protein systems:
• complement system
• coagulation system and fibrinolytic system
• kinin system Cellular systems:
• polymorph nuclear granulocytes (PMN)
• mast cells
• platelets (thrombocytes)
• endothelial cells
• macrophages and dendritic cells
• NK (natural killer) cells
7. COMPLEMENT
• The complement system primarily serves to
fight bacterial infections.
• It works at several levels.
• It has a basic recognition function for many
bacteria, can alert and recruit phagocytes,
enhance visibility of bacteria to phagocytes
and sometimes even lyses bacteria.
8. • The complement system can be activated by at least
three separate pathways.
• The two evolutionary older pathways are the so-
called "alternative" and the lectin pathways.
• Both are activated on many bacterial surfaces,
contributing to innate immunity.
• The third pathway, which is mainly antibody-
activated and hence part of the adaptive immune
system, developed much later, but was identified
first.
• Somewhat unfairly, it is therefore called the
"classical pathway".
9. COAGULATION/FIBRINOLYSIS SYSTEM
AND KININ SYSTEM
• Frequently, coagulation and kinin systems are
activated simultaneously by a process called
contact activation.
• As its name implies, this process is initiated when a
complex of three plasma proteins is formed by
contact with certain negatively charged surfaces.
• Such surfaces may be collagen, basal membranes,
or aggregated platelets in case of a laceration, or
bacterial surfaces in case of an infection.
10. ACTIVATION OF CELLULAR ELEMENTS,
PATTERN RECOGNITION RECEPTORS
• Neutrophil granulocytes (frequently
designated PMN, for polymorph nuclear
leukocytes) are able to directly recognize and
phagocytose many bacteria, but not the most
crucial polysaccharide-capsulated pathogens.
• These agents are only recognized and
phagocytose following opsonization with
complement, via complement receptors on
the neutrophil.
11. Mast cells
• Mast cells are activated to degranulate and
release histamine by a broad spectrum of
stimuli: mechanical stress, heat, cold and, as a
consequence of complement activation, C5a.
• Only later, after an adaptive immune
response, cross linking of antibodies of the IgE
type has the same effect.
12. Macrophages and dendritic cells
• Macrophages and dendritic cells express a broad
spectrum of receptors to sense the presence of
pathogens.
• These pattern recognition receptors (PRRs)
recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns
(PAMPS), structures that are conserved in broad
classes of pathogens for their functional
importance.
• Many of these receptors reside at the plasma
membrane, e. g., the mannose receptor.
• As we have observed when discussing mannose
binding protein, mannose frequently appears as
the terminal unit of carbohydrates on bacteria
13. VASOACTIVE AMINES: HISTAMINE,
SEROTONIN
• Histamine is released from mast cell granules,
resulting in vascular dilatation and an increase in
permeability.
• It is produced by decarboxylation of the amino
acid histidine.
• There are four types of histamine receptors, all of
the G protein-coupled 7TM family.
• Proinflammatory functions of histamine are
mediated by the H1 and H4 receptors.
• Drugs blocking these receptors are frequently
used in the treatment of allergies, unwanted
aspects of inflammation (runny, stuffed nose) and
motion sickness.
14. LYSOSOMAL ENZYMES
• Proteases (acid hydrolases, collagenase,
cathepsins, etc.) and bactericidic proteins
(lysozyme, defensin, myeloperoxidase for
production of reactive oxygen species) kill and
degrade phagocytosed bacteria.
• However, a frequent unwanted side effect of
these activities is tissue 7 destruction, as
proteases are also released from the cells.
• Among the various cytokines, TNFα seems to
be a prominent driver of protease expression.
15. PROSTAGLANDINS AND LEUKOTRIENES
• Many cell types synthesize prostaglandins and
leukotrienes from arachidonic acid, a polyunsaturated
fatty acid component of phospholipids.
• On demand, arachidonic acid is mobilized from the
membranes by phospholipases and metabolized in either
of two directions: to prostaglandins by cyclooxygenases
or to leukotrienes by lipoxygenase. Two cyclooxygenase
isoenzymes are expressed and regulated differentially.
• COX1 is expressed constitutively in many tissues.
• It is instrumental, e. g., in protecting the mucosa of the
gastrointestinal tract and for renal cortex perfusion,
which is important for maintaining the glomerular
filtration rate.
• COX2 is induced whenever the natural immune system is
activated.
16. PLATELET ACTIVATING FACTOR (PAF)
• PAF is a phospholipid released by
thrombocytes, basophils/mast cells,
neutrophils, monocytes/macrophages and
endothelial cells.
• It has many pro-inflammatory effects,
including platelet activation, increasing
vascular permeability, bronchial constriction
and neutrophil chemo taxis and activation.
17. CYTOKINES AND CHEMOKINES
• The term "cytokine" is somewhat fuzzy.
• It denotes a polypeptide signaling molecule produced
primarily, but not exclusively, by cells of the immune
system with the aim of coordinating the defense
functions of many different cell types.
• There are many different cytokines, with vastly different
spectra of functions and target cells. Unfortunately,
their names are not at all intuitive.
• A few examples: interleukins, TNFα (tumor necrosis
factor-α), lymphotoxin, IFNγ (interferon- γ), G-CSF
(granulocyte-colony stimulating factor), GM-CSF
(granulocyte/macrophage-colony stimulating factor), c-
kit-Ligand, TGF-β (transforming growth factor-β).
18. TNFα AND ACUTE PHASE REACTION
• The cytokine TNFα can be produced by many cell
types, but the bulk of it is produced by activated
macrophages and certain activated T-
lymphocytes, so-called T helper cells type 1
(explained later).
• Virtually all cells seem to express receptors for
TNFα. Receptor activation results in expression of
genes, the products of which contribute to
defending the organism against infection.
• Purpose of the molecule: Coordination of a non-
adaptive defense reaction on a local and a
systemic level. We will first consider abstract
strategy, then practical mechanisms.
19. SPECIAL CASE: NON-ADAPTIVE
DEFENSE AGAINST VIRUSES
• Viruses seem to be less readily detected by non-
adaptive mechanisms than bacteria, fungi or
parasites.
• This is probably due to the fact that they are
produced in human cells, making their
appearance "less unfamiliar" than that of other
pathogens.
• We are therefore equipped with special innate
systems to deal with viruses: interferon's and NK
cells.
20. NK CELLS Natural killer (NK)
• cells are similar in appearance and function to
cytotoxic T lymphocytes, but lack the receptor T cells
are using to identify virus-infected cells (the T cell
receptor).
• So how do they recognize cells that should be killed?
One of the cellular properties activating NK cells may
be characterized by the catch phrase missing or altered
self.
• NK cells are important in the early phases of defense
against certain viruses, but also against other infectious
agents, as well as for the elimination of rogue cells to
prevent tumor formation.
• They express two types of receptors: activating and
inhibiting.
21. THE ADAPTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSE
• One big problem in defending against pathogens
is that they reside in different compartments:
extracellularly : within tissue: most bacteria,
traveling viruses on outer epithelial surfaces:
Candida, enteric pathogens intracellularly:
in the cytoplasm: replicating viruses, some
bacteria in vesicles: some bacteria, e. g.,
Mycobacterium.
• To be able to fight pathogens in all these various
circumstances, a broad spectrum of tools had to
be developed.
• Especially useful tools to combat extracellular
pathogens are antibodies.
22. ANTIBODIES
• An antibody molecule (=immunoglobulin) is
composed of two heavy and two light chains
joined by disulfide bonds.
• Five alternative types of heavy chains exist (μ,
γ, δ, α, ε), giving rise to respectively IgM, IgG,
IgD, IgA or IgE.
• Light chains are either of type κ or λ. IgM
always consists of five joined immunoglobulin
units, IgA sometimes of two.
23. HOW DO ANTIBODIES CONTRIBUTE TO
DEFENSE?
• Bacteria, viruses and parasites in general are
antigenic.
• After a lag phase of at least five days, which
we must survive with the help of innate
immunity, B-lymphocyte-derived plasma cells
will produce specific antibodies.
• These antibodies then bind to the pathogens.
So what?
• How does this help us?
24. Depending on pathogen, antibodies
can help by at least five different
mechanisms:
• neutralizing viruses
• neutralizing toxins
• targeting and enhancing complement-lysis of
bacteria
• opsonizing ("mummifying") bacteria
• ADCC (antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity):
Via their Fc-receptors, NK cells are able to sense
cells carrying bound antibodies, which they
proceed to kill.
• For example, these may be virus-infected cells
exposing viral envelope proteins in their cell
membrane.