An assessment on the drinking water quality from major source (borehole) and household in a semi-urban setting in Nigeria was carried out. Structured questionnaire was administered to randomly selected households in seven zones of the municipality to determine the common method of collection and transportation, storage, and sanitation practices. Water samples collected were subjected to laboratory analyses for physico-chemical and microbial properties. The result of the physico-chemical analysis when compared against the World Health Organization (WHO) and Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) drinking water quality benchmark revealed that the water samples were within standards for consumable water except for the presence of feacal contamination. The result revealed that before water can be totally considered safe for drinking, further treatment is required at the household level due to fecal contamination, and water safety concerns are also highlighted. The result translates to the fact that compliance assessment with standards and impact assessment studies in determining the fate of pollutants is necessary at all levels.
An Assessment on Drinking Water Quality and Management in Kakamega Municipalitypaperpublications3
Abstract: Drinking water must be free from components which may adversely affect the human health. Such components include minerals, organic substances and disease causing microorganisms. A large portion of the population in urban areas in developing countries suffers from health problems associated with either lack of drinking water or due to the presence of microbiological contamination in water. This research was conducted in Kakamega municipality with a broad objective to conduct assessment of water quality and management in Kakamega municipality. The Specific objective was to determine the chemical water quality parameters in water and to evaluate the management practices on water in Kakamega municipality. Four water quality parameters; two physical and two chemical were tested from the samples collected for this research work. Sampling technique was purposive where water samples from water sources and distribution points in densely populated areas of Kakamega municipality were taken. Data collection instruments that were used included sterilized bottles to collect water, delivery to the laboratory within six (6) hours of collection for reliable results and data quality control was achieved through immediate entry in the pre-designed data form. According to the results pH values at all the sources and house connections are well within the WHO desirable limit of 6.50-8.0. The sample from Sichirai had a pH of 7.8 that was the highest as compared to an Isiukhu river that had 6.6 pH. The samples from Isiukhu river, Savona Island River, fishpond at bridge and Shikhambi spring showed more than 5 NTU. The researchers recommended for water surveillance in Kakamega municipality in order to ensure consumers have safe water free from agricultural and industrial chemical pollution.
Accessibility and Physicochemical Properties of Water for Domestic Purposes i...ijtsrd
Water is a precious resource which is essential for life and is ranked next to air as a basic necessity of man. However, one major challenge in Nigeria is the ability for both rural and urban areas to access a clean water supply. This study examined the access and physicochemical properties of water used in lafia metropolis for domestic purposes. This study adopted both the use of questionnaires and collection of water samples for laboratory analysis. The parameters tested include Temperature °C , pH value, Electrical conductivity µs , Total suspended solids mg l , Biological Oxygen demand BOD ,Turbidity NTU , Sulphate So4 , Chloride Cl , Nitrate No3 , Potassium K , Sodium Na , Calcium Ca , Magnesium Mg , Zinc Zn , Iron Fe Copper Cu and Lead Pb . The results showed that households in Lafia metropolis have reasonable access to safe water supply and the results of analyses of water samples were compared with the WHO minimum quality standards. The analyses revealed that the quality of water supply is adequate. For instance, electrical conductivity, total suspended solids, biological oxygen demand, sulphate, nitrate, and chloride values were all below the WHO values. Farringoro U. D | Ndor, E "Accessibility and Physicochemical Properties of Water for Domestic Purposes in Lafia Metropolis" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-1 , December 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd29541.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/allied-sciences/29541/accessibility-and-physicochemical-properties-of-water-for-domestic-purposes-in-lafia-metropolis/farringoro-u-d
An Assessment on Drinking Water Quality and Management in Kakamega Municipalitypaperpublications3
Abstract: Drinking water must be free from components which may adversely affect the human health. Such components include minerals, organic substances and disease causing microorganisms. A large portion of the population in urban areas in developing countries suffers from health problems associated with either lack of drinking water or due to the presence of microbiological contamination in water. This research was conducted in Kakamega municipality with a broad objective to conduct assessment of water quality and management in Kakamega municipality. The Specific objective was to determine the chemical water quality parameters in water and to evaluate the management practices on water in Kakamega municipality. Four water quality parameters; two physical and two chemical were tested from the samples collected for this research work. Sampling technique was purposive where water samples from water sources and distribution points in densely populated areas of Kakamega municipality were taken. Data collection instruments that were used included sterilized bottles to collect water, delivery to the laboratory within six (6) hours of collection for reliable results and data quality control was achieved through immediate entry in the pre-designed data form. According to the results pH values at all the sources and house connections are well within the WHO desirable limit of 6.50-8.0. The sample from Sichirai had a pH of 7.8 that was the highest as compared to an Isiukhu river that had 6.6 pH. The samples from Isiukhu river, Savona Island River, fishpond at bridge and Shikhambi spring showed more than 5 NTU. The researchers recommended for water surveillance in Kakamega municipality in order to ensure consumers have safe water free from agricultural and industrial chemical pollution.
Accessibility and Physicochemical Properties of Water for Domestic Purposes i...ijtsrd
Water is a precious resource which is essential for life and is ranked next to air as a basic necessity of man. However, one major challenge in Nigeria is the ability for both rural and urban areas to access a clean water supply. This study examined the access and physicochemical properties of water used in lafia metropolis for domestic purposes. This study adopted both the use of questionnaires and collection of water samples for laboratory analysis. The parameters tested include Temperature °C , pH value, Electrical conductivity µs , Total suspended solids mg l , Biological Oxygen demand BOD ,Turbidity NTU , Sulphate So4 , Chloride Cl , Nitrate No3 , Potassium K , Sodium Na , Calcium Ca , Magnesium Mg , Zinc Zn , Iron Fe Copper Cu and Lead Pb . The results showed that households in Lafia metropolis have reasonable access to safe water supply and the results of analyses of water samples were compared with the WHO minimum quality standards. The analyses revealed that the quality of water supply is adequate. For instance, electrical conductivity, total suspended solids, biological oxygen demand, sulphate, nitrate, and chloride values were all below the WHO values. Farringoro U. D | Ndor, E "Accessibility and Physicochemical Properties of Water for Domestic Purposes in Lafia Metropolis" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-1 , December 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd29541.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/allied-sciences/29541/accessibility-and-physicochemical-properties-of-water-for-domestic-purposes-in-lafia-metropolis/farringoro-u-d
Specific physicochemical parameters influence on the plankton structure in ag...Innspub Net
The continuous discharge of effluents into Warri River, impacts on its water quality parameters as well as plankton species which requires commensurate surveillance. This study focuses on its physicochemical characteristics and their influence on plankton composition and abundance. The surface water samples and plankton collected monthly from June to November 2014 were analyzed using standard methods. The physicochemical parameters showed variations among the stations. The ANOVA results revealed that water temperature, transparency, turbidity, TDS, conductivity, pH, acidity, Dissolved Oxygen and phosphate were significantly different (P <0.05) among the studied sites. A total of 849 plankton species identified; 814 species were phytoplankton consisting of four groups (Bacillariophyta> Chlorophyta> Euglenophyta> Cyanophyta, arranged in order of dominance. While zooplankton had 35 species grouped into 5 groups; Rotifera> Copepoda> Protozoa> Cladocera> Arachnida, in order of dominance. Pearson correlation revealed a significant correlation between different Plankton species population and some parameters (p<0.05). The principal component analysis labelled acidity, organic load, mineralization, nutrient, and organic pollution as influential factors governing plankton abundance in the studied area. These factors identify with materials from industries and human activities along the river, which results in the alteration of plankton composition, particularly Melosira granulata (Ehrenberg) Ralfs,1861. Inferred biological indicator of the water body. Diversity indices ranged from 0.28 to 1.39; Station 2 had the highest (1.39) and Station 1 the lowest species richness, a highly polluted river.
Introduction to Drinking Water Quality: A Layperson’s Guide to Water Quality,...lhirsh
Poor water quality is a global health crisis. Not everyone who must help remedy this monumental problem is a scientist, or policy maker, or water, sanitation and hygiene expert, or public health professional. However, everyone at every level must have some understanding of the subject and science behind it.
Our booklet provides basic information to help people make intelligent decisions about safe drinking water.
Physicochemical Assessment of Groundwater Quality from Hand Dug Wells and Bor...IJAEMSJORNAL
Water is the second most important basic need of man after oxygen which is the first. The quality of life in villages and cities depends on the regular supply of pure and unpolluted fresh water. The quality of water bodies depends on their physicochemical and microbial characteristics. The hand-dug wells and boreholes are charactacterised as groundwater under this study. Sampling was done on 21 points containing wells and bore holes within part of Mokola-Eleyele in order to assess their physiochemical contents. The sample was collected during September 2018 - February 2019. Laboratory analysis was carried out on them. The physical and chemical contents observed are; pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), Calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), Chloride (Cl-), Sulphate (SO4+), Nitrate (NO3+) and iron content (Fe2+) were analyzed for each water sample collected. The values of physical and chemical contents were compared with the standard values set by the Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) and the results were within their safe limits. The t-test analysis carried out showed the correlation between chemical contents at 90%, 95% and 99% confidence level, the results shows that the significant differences exist for the parameters. It can be concluded that the qualities of both hand dug wells and boreholes water samples were suitable for human consumption.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Multidisciplinary Journal Supported by TETFund. The journals would publish papers covering a wide range of subjects in journal science, management science, educational, agricultural, architectural, accounting and finance, business administration, entrepreneurship, business education, all journals
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
Water Pollution Control for Mandalay KanDawGyi Lake by Natural Treatment Systemijtsrd
This paper emphasized on "Water Pollution Control for Mandalay KanDawGyi Lake by Natural Treatment System". KanDawGyi Lake is used for wastewater collection. It is situated in ChanMyaThaZi Township, Mandalay and near the AyeYarWaddy river. Residential, commercial and industrial area are existed surrounding the KanDawGyi Lake. Water from human activities such as cooking, bathing, washing and septic tanks effluent is discharged into drains by gravity flow without treatment. Average six million gallons of wastewater discharged from Mandalay City area flow into KanDawGyi Lake passing through ThinGaZar creek daily. So, lake water has been contaminated by domestic wastewater. This has resulted detrimental effects on the ecosystem. Water in recreation center should be aesthetically pleasing and essentially free of toxicants and pathogenic organisms. Seven collection points such as entrance, east of north side, south east of north side, south of north side, water fountains, PyiGyiMon barge and exit of KanDawGyi Lake are chosen to collect the wastewater sample. The water quality of KanDawGyi Lake is evaluated by various parameters such as temperature, turbidity, suspended solids, dissolved solids, pH, total alkalinity, total hardness, biochemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, chlorides, total solids and bacteria. According to test results, alkalinity, chlorides, dissolved solids, suspended solids, and total solids are uncertified. Therefore, in this paper wetland design of natural treatment system is used at the entrance of the lake to control the water pollution. Moh Moh | San San Myint "Water Pollution Control for Mandalay KanDawGyi Lake by Natural Treatment System" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd25323.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/25323/water-pollution-control-for-mandalay-kandawgyi-lake-by-natural-treatment-system/moh-moh
Prediction of groundwater quality in Selected Locations in Imo StateIJMER
The prediction of groundwater quality in selected locations was carried out in Owerri-West
L.G.A. of Imo State. The Physical, chemical and biological parameters of groundwater samples from
Nekede (Ward A), Ihiagwa (Ward B), Eziobodo (Ward C), Obinze (Ward D) and Avu (Ward E) were
analysed using the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). A total of three replicates of fifteen
different borehole water samples were collected based on distances from closest potential sources of
contamination. All parameters were detected up to 61m from pollution source and most of them
increased in concentration during the periods, pointing to infiltrations from storm water. The results
for Iron, pH and TVC decreased as distance increases while for nitrate and BOD increased as distance
increases. Results also showed that most of the boreholes were polluted and not suitable for human
consumption without adequate treatment, Regular monitoring of groundwater quality, abolishment of
unhealthy waste disposal practices and introduction of modern techniques are recommended.
The physicochemical properties of some selected water sources within a quarry site at locations (L1, L2, L3, and L4) in Afao-Ekiti
were investigated using standard analytical methods. At the quarry site the following parameters were undertaking (pH, total dissolved solids, the total hardness, phosphate, electrical conductivity, chloride, and fluoride and nitrate) and were all within the World Health Organization (WHO) permissible limits for drinking water. However, the metal samples investigated also fell within WHO permissible limits for drinking water except for iron (L3) and manganese (L4). These results showed that water sources in this environment were not contaminated and fit for human consumption. This study also investigates the suitability of water for drinking purposes based on Water Quality Index (WQI) estimated. The Communities within the studied area require alternative sources of potable water for drinking and
domestic purposes other than the previous model.
Studies on the Bacteriological quality of vegetable crops irrigated with dome...Premier Publishers
The bacteriological quality of vegetable crops irrigated with domestic wastewater in Aliero, Kebbi State, Nigeria was analysed. The vegetable samples were collected during October 2013 and September 2014 in Aliero town in a period of three months across the two seasons (i.e., the dry and rainy seasons). After the analysis, the following bacterial spp were isolated from the vegetable crops irrigated with domestic wastewater water; Salmonella spp (14.0%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (13.2%), Klebsiella spp (16.0%), Shigella spp (19.2%), Escherichia coli (41.6%), Citrobacter spp (25.2%), Proteus spp (15.6%) and Campylobacter spp (6.8%). The bacterial spp isolated from vegetables irrigated with tube well water was Staphylococcus aureus (26.8%), Escherichia coli (14.0%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (8.8%), Diplococcus spp (12.0%) and Corynebacteria spp (1.2%). Escherichia coli and Citrobacter spp were recorded to have the highest number of occurrence in vegetables irrigated with domestic wastewater, with the percentage of 41.6% and 22.2% respectively. While Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli have the highest occurrence of 26.8% and 14.0% respectively in vegetables irrigated with tube well water. This study highlights the health risk associated with the consumption of these vegetables particularly those consumed raw.
Biometric Assessment of Bacteriological Profile of Borehole Water in Relation...Premier Publishers
Borehole water is a major water source in some parts of the world and human health depends largely on the quality of water consumed. Hence, bacteriological assessment of borehole water in relation to distance and age of septic tanks in nine student’s hostels in Ikot Udota was investigated using standard scientific methods. The organisms isolated were: Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp, Bacillus spp Pseudomonas spp, Streptococcus spp, Enterobacter spp, Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholerae, and Proteus vulgaris. The result revealed that the total bacteria counts of the samples ranged from 30cfu/ml in Ario house, 246 cfu/ml in Macdone. However, Macdone’s lodge had the highest faecal coliform count with 2 (66.6%), while Anthonys’ had the lowest faecal coliform count with 1 (33.3%). Correlation analysis signaled that there is a significant (p<0.05) likelihood that contaminants enrichment grossly emanated from a point source seeing that 72.2% of TBC and 73.5% of FCC were associated with short distances from septic tanks. Also, 28.5% of TBC and 15.4% of FCC were associated with borehole age. Conclusively, boreholes should be situated far from refuse/sewage disposal units and routine treatment of old borehole water sources is a necessity.
Specific physicochemical parameters influence on the plankton structure in ag...Innspub Net
The continuous discharge of effluents into Warri River, impacts on its water quality parameters as well as plankton species which requires commensurate surveillance. This study focuses on its physicochemical characteristics and their influence on plankton composition and abundance. The surface water samples and plankton collected monthly from June to November 2014 were analyzed using standard methods. The physicochemical parameters showed variations among the stations. The ANOVA results revealed that water temperature, transparency, turbidity, TDS, conductivity, pH, acidity, Dissolved Oxygen and phosphate were significantly different (P <0.05) among the studied sites. A total of 849 plankton species identified; 814 species were phytoplankton consisting of four groups (Bacillariophyta> Chlorophyta> Euglenophyta> Cyanophyta, arranged in order of dominance. While zooplankton had 35 species grouped into 5 groups; Rotifera> Copepoda> Protozoa> Cladocera> Arachnida, in order of dominance. Pearson correlation revealed a significant correlation between different Plankton species population and some parameters (p<0.05). The principal component analysis labelled acidity, organic load, mineralization, nutrient, and organic pollution as influential factors governing plankton abundance in the studied area. These factors identify with materials from industries and human activities along the river, which results in the alteration of plankton composition, particularly Melosira granulata (Ehrenberg) Ralfs,1861. Inferred biological indicator of the water body. Diversity indices ranged from 0.28 to 1.39; Station 2 had the highest (1.39) and Station 1 the lowest species richness, a highly polluted river.
Introduction to Drinking Water Quality: A Layperson’s Guide to Water Quality,...lhirsh
Poor water quality is a global health crisis. Not everyone who must help remedy this monumental problem is a scientist, or policy maker, or water, sanitation and hygiene expert, or public health professional. However, everyone at every level must have some understanding of the subject and science behind it.
Our booklet provides basic information to help people make intelligent decisions about safe drinking water.
Physicochemical Assessment of Groundwater Quality from Hand Dug Wells and Bor...IJAEMSJORNAL
Water is the second most important basic need of man after oxygen which is the first. The quality of life in villages and cities depends on the regular supply of pure and unpolluted fresh water. The quality of water bodies depends on their physicochemical and microbial characteristics. The hand-dug wells and boreholes are charactacterised as groundwater under this study. Sampling was done on 21 points containing wells and bore holes within part of Mokola-Eleyele in order to assess their physiochemical contents. The sample was collected during September 2018 - February 2019. Laboratory analysis was carried out on them. The physical and chemical contents observed are; pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), Calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), Chloride (Cl-), Sulphate (SO4+), Nitrate (NO3+) and iron content (Fe2+) were analyzed for each water sample collected. The values of physical and chemical contents were compared with the standard values set by the Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) and the results were within their safe limits. The t-test analysis carried out showed the correlation between chemical contents at 90%, 95% and 99% confidence level, the results shows that the significant differences exist for the parameters. It can be concluded that the qualities of both hand dug wells and boreholes water samples were suitable for human consumption.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Multidisciplinary Journal Supported by TETFund. The journals would publish papers covering a wide range of subjects in journal science, management science, educational, agricultural, architectural, accounting and finance, business administration, entrepreneurship, business education, all journals
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
Water Pollution Control for Mandalay KanDawGyi Lake by Natural Treatment Systemijtsrd
This paper emphasized on "Water Pollution Control for Mandalay KanDawGyi Lake by Natural Treatment System". KanDawGyi Lake is used for wastewater collection. It is situated in ChanMyaThaZi Township, Mandalay and near the AyeYarWaddy river. Residential, commercial and industrial area are existed surrounding the KanDawGyi Lake. Water from human activities such as cooking, bathing, washing and septic tanks effluent is discharged into drains by gravity flow without treatment. Average six million gallons of wastewater discharged from Mandalay City area flow into KanDawGyi Lake passing through ThinGaZar creek daily. So, lake water has been contaminated by domestic wastewater. This has resulted detrimental effects on the ecosystem. Water in recreation center should be aesthetically pleasing and essentially free of toxicants and pathogenic organisms. Seven collection points such as entrance, east of north side, south east of north side, south of north side, water fountains, PyiGyiMon barge and exit of KanDawGyi Lake are chosen to collect the wastewater sample. The water quality of KanDawGyi Lake is evaluated by various parameters such as temperature, turbidity, suspended solids, dissolved solids, pH, total alkalinity, total hardness, biochemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, chlorides, total solids and bacteria. According to test results, alkalinity, chlorides, dissolved solids, suspended solids, and total solids are uncertified. Therefore, in this paper wetland design of natural treatment system is used at the entrance of the lake to control the water pollution. Moh Moh | San San Myint "Water Pollution Control for Mandalay KanDawGyi Lake by Natural Treatment System" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd25323.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/25323/water-pollution-control-for-mandalay-kandawgyi-lake-by-natural-treatment-system/moh-moh
Prediction of groundwater quality in Selected Locations in Imo StateIJMER
The prediction of groundwater quality in selected locations was carried out in Owerri-West
L.G.A. of Imo State. The Physical, chemical and biological parameters of groundwater samples from
Nekede (Ward A), Ihiagwa (Ward B), Eziobodo (Ward C), Obinze (Ward D) and Avu (Ward E) were
analysed using the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). A total of three replicates of fifteen
different borehole water samples were collected based on distances from closest potential sources of
contamination. All parameters were detected up to 61m from pollution source and most of them
increased in concentration during the periods, pointing to infiltrations from storm water. The results
for Iron, pH and TVC decreased as distance increases while for nitrate and BOD increased as distance
increases. Results also showed that most of the boreholes were polluted and not suitable for human
consumption without adequate treatment, Regular monitoring of groundwater quality, abolishment of
unhealthy waste disposal practices and introduction of modern techniques are recommended.
The physicochemical properties of some selected water sources within a quarry site at locations (L1, L2, L3, and L4) in Afao-Ekiti
were investigated using standard analytical methods. At the quarry site the following parameters were undertaking (pH, total dissolved solids, the total hardness, phosphate, electrical conductivity, chloride, and fluoride and nitrate) and were all within the World Health Organization (WHO) permissible limits for drinking water. However, the metal samples investigated also fell within WHO permissible limits for drinking water except for iron (L3) and manganese (L4). These results showed that water sources in this environment were not contaminated and fit for human consumption. This study also investigates the suitability of water for drinking purposes based on Water Quality Index (WQI) estimated. The Communities within the studied area require alternative sources of potable water for drinking and
domestic purposes other than the previous model.
Studies on the Bacteriological quality of vegetable crops irrigated with dome...Premier Publishers
The bacteriological quality of vegetable crops irrigated with domestic wastewater in Aliero, Kebbi State, Nigeria was analysed. The vegetable samples were collected during October 2013 and September 2014 in Aliero town in a period of three months across the two seasons (i.e., the dry and rainy seasons). After the analysis, the following bacterial spp were isolated from the vegetable crops irrigated with domestic wastewater water; Salmonella spp (14.0%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (13.2%), Klebsiella spp (16.0%), Shigella spp (19.2%), Escherichia coli (41.6%), Citrobacter spp (25.2%), Proteus spp (15.6%) and Campylobacter spp (6.8%). The bacterial spp isolated from vegetables irrigated with tube well water was Staphylococcus aureus (26.8%), Escherichia coli (14.0%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (8.8%), Diplococcus spp (12.0%) and Corynebacteria spp (1.2%). Escherichia coli and Citrobacter spp were recorded to have the highest number of occurrence in vegetables irrigated with domestic wastewater, with the percentage of 41.6% and 22.2% respectively. While Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli have the highest occurrence of 26.8% and 14.0% respectively in vegetables irrigated with tube well water. This study highlights the health risk associated with the consumption of these vegetables particularly those consumed raw.
Biometric Assessment of Bacteriological Profile of Borehole Water in Relation...Premier Publishers
Borehole water is a major water source in some parts of the world and human health depends largely on the quality of water consumed. Hence, bacteriological assessment of borehole water in relation to distance and age of septic tanks in nine student’s hostels in Ikot Udota was investigated using standard scientific methods. The organisms isolated were: Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp, Bacillus spp Pseudomonas spp, Streptococcus spp, Enterobacter spp, Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholerae, and Proteus vulgaris. The result revealed that the total bacteria counts of the samples ranged from 30cfu/ml in Ario house, 246 cfu/ml in Macdone. However, Macdone’s lodge had the highest faecal coliform count with 2 (66.6%), while Anthonys’ had the lowest faecal coliform count with 1 (33.3%). Correlation analysis signaled that there is a significant (p<0.05) likelihood that contaminants enrichment grossly emanated from a point source seeing that 72.2% of TBC and 73.5% of FCC were associated with short distances from septic tanks. Also, 28.5% of TBC and 15.4% of FCC were associated with borehole age. Conclusively, boreholes should be situated far from refuse/sewage disposal units and routine treatment of old borehole water sources is a necessity.
Physico-Chemical and Microbial Analysis of Drinking Water of Four Springs of ...IJEAB
Drinking water of good quality is essential for human physiology whose continual existence depends on the availability of water and any sort of contamination in water which is above the standard limits set by international water regulating agencies can lead to water related diseases. So, the present investigation was conducted to determine the physico-chemical and bacteriological contents of four springs i.e.Heshi spring 1, Heshi spring 2, Kitaab Roong, and Kooti spring and its distribution system such as water reservoir inlet, outlet, mid and end point of distribution systems, junction where it merge with glacier water. The temperature was in a range of 13oC - 22oC. The turbidity of water samples fluctuate from 0.02NTU-1.99NTU. The pH value was in a range of 6.2-7.1. Electrical conductivity range of minimum 122µS/cm to a maximum of 600µS/cm. The TDS of all water samples ranging from minimum of 164-513mg/l. The amount of reactive ortho phosphate was in a range of 26mg/l to 59mg/L. The amount of total phosphorous was in a range of minimum 23m/L to maximum of 120mg/L. The total bacterial count was in a range of 11CFU/100ml to 83 CFU/100ml.The findings showed there should be comprehensive standardization of drinking water of Danyore village according to guidelines of WHO water quality standards and make it safe for human consumption.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
Physico Chemical and Bacteriological Quality of Water Sources in the Coast of...ijtsrd
The study of water sources used by the population of Ndian for drinking with the exception of the Ekondo Titi beach was carried out by investigating 51 water sources. Due to the lack of pipe borne water in this area, the population is compelled to consume water from unprotected shallow aquifers and surface water sources, there by exposing the population to infections form of water borne diseases. In this perspective, the present study was aimed to check the suitability of these water sources for drinking. The bacteriological quality of the water sources was performed using the Most Probable Number MPN technique. Temperature, pH, electrical conductivity EC and total dissolved solids TDS were also determined. The pH values reflect slightly acidic, neutral and basic water sources. Sixty percent 60 of the ground water samples where slightly acidic 5.5 6.4 and out of the WHO 2011 guideline limit 6.5 8.5 for drinking water. This situation puts the inhabitants at risk to stomach ulcer. The electrical conductivity values 3.00 274 us cm for groundwater sources represents water experiencing slight mineralization. Based on the total coliform bacteria, 96 of water sources were polluted to grossly polluted 75 2400 MPN 100 ml and 4 excellent following the acceptable maximum limits prescribed by the World Health Organization Standards which exposes the population to water borne diseases such as typhoid, cholera and dysentery. The bacteria contamination of the water sources may result from the waste of pit toilets that intersect the water tables of shallow unconfined aquifers and also from poor sanitation practices carried out along stream channels and springs. Proper water treatment at household levels is highly recommended. Engome R. Wotany | Samuel N. Ayonghe | Mengnjo J. Wirmvem | Wilson Y. Fantong "Physico-Chemical and Bacteriological Quality of Water Sources in the Coast of Ndian, South West Region, Cameroon: Health Implications" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd26626.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/geology/26626/physico-chemical-and-bacteriological-quality-of-water-sources-in-the-coast-of-ndian-south-west-region-cameroon-health-implications/engome-r-wotany
Impact of Locating Boreholes Near Septic Tanks Pit Latrines on Drinking Water...ijtsrd
Water is one of the most indispensible elements of life. One of the major uses of water by man is for drinking, hence drinking water quality has become a major concern in this regard because poor quality water can cause outbreak of major epidemics and death. In this study, impact of locating boreholes near septic tanks pit latrines on drinking water quality in Uyo metropolis, Akwa Ibom State was investigated. The water samples were collected from thirty 30 locations and categorized into i water from boreholes near W near and ii far from septic tanks pit latrines W far . Some physicochemical parameters analyzed were temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen DO , biochemical oxygen demand BOD5 , salinity i.e. sulphate, carbonate, nitrate, phosphate and chloride ions , total hardness TH , total dissolved solids TDS , total suspended solids TSS and total alkalinity. Pairwise comparison between quality of W near and W far revealed that only BOD 5, TH and TDS had significant mean difference MD at 5 level of probability while their comparison with World Health Organization permissible limit P WHO showed higher significant MD. All the values of parameters were within P WHO, except that of temperature and pH. Based on the results, the water chemistry is tolerable and may not cause any critical damage to the water distribution system as well as utility components. However, treatment is still suggested and boreholes should be drilled some reasonable distances far away from septic tanks pit latrine to guarantee safe drinking water. Akpan, Samuel A | Eze, Bassey E | Assian, Ubong E "Impact of Locating Boreholes Near Septic Tanks/ Pit Latrines on Drinking Water Quality in Uyo Metropolis, Akwa Ibom State" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-6 , October 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd33314.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/enviormental-science/33314/impact-of-locating-boreholes-near-septic-tanks-pit-latrines-on-drinking-water-quality-in-uyo-metropolis-akwa-ibom-state/akpan-samuel-a
appraisal of groundwater quality in ado ekiti metropolitan area, nigeriaIJAEMSJORNAL
This study examined the groundwater quality in Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria. Water samples were randomly collected from ten hand-dug wells (HDW) covering the entire Ado-Ekiti metropolis. The water samples collected using standard method was promptly taken to water laboratory at the Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti for analysis. Physical, chemical and bacteriological tests were carried out. Most physical, chemical and bacteriological parameters analysed were found to be at disparity with both Nigerian and World Health Organization (WHO) standard for drinking water quality. The ground water pollution may not be unconnected with poor and improper waste disposal. In order to guide against cholera and other water borne diseases, public enlightenment on proper waste management is require to be carried out. It is recommended that samples of well water use for drinking and other domestic chores should be taken to laboratory chemical and bacteriological tests once in six months.
Slaughter waste effluents and river catchment watershed contamination in Caga...Angelo Mark Walag
Slaughterhouse waste products are commonly known globally to pollute nearby communities and receiving bodies of water. The main aim of this study was to analyze the effluents disposed by Cagayan de Oro City Slaughterhouse to river catchment watershed. Standard methods were utilized in sampling and analyzing water quality parameters to determine the levels of nitrates, BOD, COD, total coliform, and lead. It was found out that the majority of wastes produced are internal organs, blood and urine mixtures, and manures. The study also revealed that all parameters tested crossed the permissible limits set by the government for effluent and inland water except for BOD and nitrates, in the river watershed. It was also determined that during wet seasons, major contaminants like lead and nitrates were diluted resulting to lower levels when compared to national standards. The result of this study also revealed the need for further remediation of the river water quality and intervention strategies to sustainably manage and prevent disposal of untreated effluents.
Isolation and Evaluation of Antibiotic Resistivity Pattern of Faecal Coliforms Bacteria Isolated From River Wudil Kano, Nigeria by Ali M in Advancements in Bioequivalence & Bioavailability
Water borne diseases has been a major public health concern in Nigeria. This study was conducted to identify and evaluate the antibiotic resistivity pattern of faecal coliforms bacteria isolated from River Wudil in Wudil Local Government Area of Kano State, Nigeria. Four (4) water samples from different part of the river were collected for the study. The bacteriological and physicochemical analyses performed were in accordance with standard procedures. Antibiotic susceptibility patterns of the bacterial isolates were determined using modified Kirby Bauer method. The result of the study revealed that the physicochemical properties of the river are within the WHO and NIS standard.
https://crimsonpublishers.com/abb/fulltext/ABB.000509.php
Evaluation of Potential Physico-Chemical Ground Water Pollution: a Case Study...EditorIJAERD
Ground water is a large source of water for utilisation in the world. This resource is not easily accessible to
monitor its changes and its deterioration is not easy to reverse. In the current study, physico-chemical parameters of
groundwater for Kiwanja Market (KM) were analysed and compared to the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBs) water
quality. The pH, DO, temperature, turbidity, chlorine, iron, water hardness, potassium and calcium were analysed. All the
parameters studied were within the stipulated levels except iron, and chloride for samples from point C (Ebenezer Hostel).
Turbidity for samples from points A and C were above the permissible levels of KEBs standards. The water sampled from
point A and C may require further treatment to allow for domestic use. This analysis revealed to some extent a healthier
system, though further analysis is needed to support this assertion. Continuous monitoring of the groundwater sources
within KM should be taken on regular basis to detect any changes and to sustainably maintain the quality of water within
the required KEBs water quality standards.
Effluent pollution is the degradation of the physical, chemical or biological properties of sewage, altered as a result of the introduction of certain substances which renders it unsafe and therefore, regarded as wastewater. This paper aims to examine the effects of effluent pollution on the socio-economic ,environment, and health status of people around (9) custodial centres in Nigeria. The study locations are Medium Security Custodial Centres Kuje (Abuja ), Kirikiri (Lagos), Suleja (Abuja ), Badagry (Lagos), Ikoyi (Lagos), Female Kirikiri (Lagos), Maximum Security Custodial centres (Kirikiri-Lagos and Port-harcourt Rivers) and Correctional Farm Centre Dukpa (Abuja) In the study, descriptive survey method was used after familiarity with the environment and selection of 372 respondents through purposive sampling technique. The process of questionnaire administration, interviews and Focused Group Discussions (FGD), was systematically applied in collection of data which were analyzed using frequency /percentage modules. Consequently, inferential statistics was adapted to test the hypothesis postulated using SPSS 20.0.
Effluent pollution is the degradation of the physical, chemical or biological properties of sewage, altered as a result of the introduction of certain substances which renders it unsafe and therefore, regarded as wastewater. This paper aims to examine the effects of effluent pollution on the socio-economic ,environment, and health status of people around (9) custodial centres in Nigeria. The study locations are Medium Security Custodial Centres Kuje (Abuja ), Kirikiri (Lagos), Suleja (Abuja ), Badagry (Lagos), Ikoyi (Lagos), Female Kirikiri (Lagos), Maximum Security Custodial centres (Kirikiri-Lagos and Port-harcourt Rivers) and Correctional Farm Centre Dukpa (Abuja) In the study, descriptive survey method was used after familiarity with the environment and selection of 372 respondents through purposive sampling technique.
Effluent pollution is the degradation of the physical, chemical or biological properties of sewage, altered as a result of the introduction of certain substances which renders it unsafe and therefore, regarded as wastewater. This paper aims to examine the effects of effluent pollution on the socio-economic ,environment, and health status of people around (9) custodial centres in Nigeria. The study locations are Medium Security Custodial Centres Kuje (Abuja ), Kirikiri (Lagos), Suleja (Abuja ), Badagry (Lagos), Ikoyi (Lagos), Female Kirikiri (Lagos), Maximum Security Custodial centres (Kirikiri-Lagos and Port-harcourt Rivers) and Correctional Farm Centre Dukpa (Abuja) In the study, descriptive survey method was used after familiarity with the environment and selection of 372 respondents through purposive sampling technique. The process of questionnaire administration, interviews and Focused Group Discussions (FGD), was systematically applied in collection of data which were analyzed using frequency /percentage modules. Consequently, inferential statistics was adapted to test the hypothesis postulated using SPSS 20.0. The findings revealed that nature of generating wastewater from hygiene and sanitation procedure among inmates using restroom and flushing toilet at the rate of about 41-50 litres of water per inmate per day causes significant flooding, as well as generate chemical compounds which catalyses air and soil pollution. Inappropriate discharge of wastewater result to of outbreak of diseases in the custodial environment resulting in high rate of cholera, typhoid, malaria and dysentery. These health challenges constitute serious socio’- economic burden for the management of the custodian centres. The study also shows significant effects of effluent pollution in the area of study at a level of 0.05% significance. Thus, recommendations were made to proffer solution to the menace of effluent discharge on pollution crises around the environment correctional centres.
Assessment of physicochemical and bacteriological drinking water quality of d...IJERA Editor
Water is essential to sustain the life. Water samples have collected from a different urban area of H. D. Kote
town of Mysore district from different sources such as hand pump, public taps, and stored household drinking
water. Physico-chemical and microbiological characteristics of the water samples were analysed following the
standard methods to evaluate the quality of drinking water. All physic-chemical parameters are within the
permissible limit to WHO. The microbiological analysis shows that that t nearly 53 % of the samples were
observed with coliform contamination. The significant difference among water sources regarding total plate
count was observed, where stored household water has relatively higher compared to tap and borewell water
exceeding the standard limit. Both hand pump and the tap water were not detected with any E. coli
contamination whereas 80% of the household stored water samples have shown E. coli contamination. The
presence of significant counts of coliforms in stored household water indicates post poor sanitation and
existence of human activities. Attention should be given to the collection, storage, and management by
additional treatment to maintain and prevent excessive microbial growth
Similar to Drinking Water Quality and Sanitation Issues: A Survey of a Semi-Urban Setting in Nigeria (20)
Exploratory study on the use of crushed cockle shell as partial sand replacem...IJRES Journal
The increasing demand for natural river sand supply for the use in construction industry along
with the issue of environmental problem posed by the dumping of cockle shell, a by-product from cockle
business have initiated research towards producing a more environmental friendly concrete. This research
explores the potential use of cockle shell as partial sand replacement in concrete production. Cockle shell used
in this experimental work were crushed to smaller size almost similar to sand before mixed in concrete. A total
of six concrete mixtures were prepared with varying the percentages of cockle shell viz. 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%,
20% and 25%. All the specimens were subjected to continuous water curing. The compressive strength test was
conducted at 28 days in accordance to BS EN 12390. Finding shows that integration of suitable content of
crushed cockle shell of 10% as partial sand replacement able to enhance the compressive strength of concrete.
Adopting crushed cockle shell as partial sand replacement in concrete would reduce natural river sand
consumption as well as reducing the amount of cockle shell disposed as waste.
Congenital Malaria: Correlation of Umbilical Cord Plasmodium falciparum Paras...IJRES Journal
The vertical (trans-placental) transmission of the parasite Plasmodium falciparum from
pregnant mother to fetus during gestational period was investigated in a clinical research involving 43 full term
pregnant women in selected Hospitals in Jimeta Yola, Adamawa State Nigeria. During the observational study,
parasitemia was determined by light microscopic examination of umbilical and maternal peripheral blood film
for the presence of the trophozoites of Plasmodium falciparum. Correlational analysis was then carried on the
result obtained at p<0.05.><0.05) was established between maternal peripheral blood and umbilical cord
blood parasitemia with Pearson’s correlation coefficient of 0.762. Thus, in a malaria endemic area like Yola,
Adamawa State, Nigeria, with a stable transmission of parasite, there is a high probability of vertical
transmission of Plasmodium falciparum parasite from mother to fetus during gestation that can be followed by
the presentation of the symptoms of malaria by the newborn and other malaria related complications. Families
are advised to consistently sleep under appropriately treated insecticide mosquito net to avoid mosquito bite and
subsequent infestation.
Review: Nonlinear Techniques for Analysis of Heart Rate VariabilityIJRES Journal
Heart rate variability (HRV) is a measure of the balance between sympathetic mediators of heart
rate that is the effect of epinephrine and norepinephrine released from sympathetic nerve fibres acting on the
sino-atrial and atrio-ventricular nodes which increase the rate of cardiac contraction and facilitate conduction at
the atrio-ventricular node and parasympathetic mediators of heart rate that is the influence of acetylcholine
released by the parasympathetic nerve fibres acting on the sino-atrial and atrio-ventricular nodes leading to a
decrease in the heart rate and a slowing of conduction at the atrio-ventricular node. Sympathetic mediators
appear to exert their influence over longer time periods and are reflected in the low frequency power(LFP) of
the HRV spectrum (between 0.04Hz and 0.15 Hz).Vagal mediators exert their influence more quickly on the
heart and principally affect the high frequency power (HFP) of the HRV spectrum (between 0.15Hz and 0.4
Hz). Thus at any point in time the LFP:HFP ratio is a proxy for the sympatho- vagal balance. Thus HRV is a
valuable tool to investigate the sympathetic and parasympathetic function of the autonomic nervous system.
Study of HRV enhance our understanding of physiological phenomenon, the actions of medications and disease
mechanisms but large scale prospective studies are needed to determine the sensitivity, specificity and predictive
values of heart rate variability regarding death or morbidity in cardiac and non-cardiac patients. This paper
presents the linear and nonlinear to analysis the HRV.
Dynamic Modeling for Gas Phase Propylene Copolymerization in a Fluidized Bed ...IJRES Journal
A two-phase model is proposed for describing the dynamics of a fluidized bed reactor used for
polypropylene production. In the proposed model, the fluidized bed is divided into an emulsion and bubble
phase where the flow of gas is considered to be plug flow through the bubbles and perfectly mixed through the
emulsion phase. Similar previous models, consider the reaction in the emulsion phase only. In this work the
contribution of reaction in the bubble phase is considered and its effect on the overall polypropylene production
is investigated the kinetic model is combined with hydrodynamic model in order to develop a comprehensive
model for gas-phase propylene copolymerization reactor. Simulation profiles of the proposed model were
compared with those of well mixed model for the emulsion phase temperature. The simulated temperature
profile showed a lower rate of change compared to the previously reported models due to lower polymerization
rate. Model simulation showed that about 13% of the produced polymer comes from the bubble phase and this
considerable amount of polymerization in the bubbles should not be neglected in any modeling attempt.
Study and evaluation for different types of Sudanese crude oil propertiesIJRES Journal
Sudanese crude oil is regarded as one of the sweet types of crude in the world, Sulphur containing
compounds are un desirable in petroleum because they de activate the catalyst during the refining processes and
are the main source of acid rains and environmental pollution.(Mark Cullen 2001),Since it contains considerable
amount of salts and acids, it negatively impact the production facilities and transportation lines with corrosive
materials. However it suffers other problems in flow properties represented by the high viscosity and high
percentage of wax. Samples were collected after the initial and final treatment at CPF, and tested for
physical and chemical properties.wax content is in the range 23-31 weight % while asphalting content is about
0.1 weight% . Resin content is 13-7 weight % and deposits are 0.01 weight%. The carbon number distribution in
the crude is in the range 7-35 carbon atoms. The pour point vary between 39°C-42°C and the boiling point is in
the range 70 °C - 533 °C.
A Short Report on Different Wavelets and Their StructuresIJRES Journal
This article consists of basics of wavelet analysis required for understanding of and use of wavelet
theory. In this article we briefly discuss about HAAR wavelet transform their space and structures.
A Case Study on Academic Services Application Using Agile Methodology for Mob...IJRES Journal
Recently, Mobile Cloud Computing reveals many modern development areas in the Information
Technology industry. Several software engineering frameworks and methodologies have been developed to
provide solutions for deploying cloud computing resources on mobile application development. Agile
methodology is one of the most commonly used methodologies in the field. This paper presents the MCCAS a
Web and Mobile application that provide feature for the Palestinian higher education/academic institutions. An
Agile methodology was used in the development of the MCCAS but in parallel with emphasis on Cloud
computing resources deployment. Also many related issues is discussed such as how software engineering
modern methodologies (advances) influenced the development process.
Wear Analysis on Cylindrical Cam with Flexible RodIJRES Journal
Firstly, the kinetic equation of spatial cylindrical cam with flexible rod has been established. Then, an
accurate cylindrical cam mechanism model has been established based on the spatial modeling software
Solidworks. The dynamic effect of flexible rod on mechanical system was studied in detail based on the
mechanical system dynamics analytical software Adams, and Archard wear model is used to predict the wear of
the cam. We used Ansys to create finite element model of the cam link, extracted the first five order mode to
export into Adams. The simulation results show that the dynamic characteristics of spatial cylindrical cam
mechanical system with flexible rod is closed to ideal mechanism. During the cam rotate one cycle, the collision
in the linkage with a clearance occurs in some special location, others still keep a continuous contact, and the
prediction of wear loss is smaller than rigid body.
DDOS Attacks-A Stealthy Way of Implementation and DetectionIJRES Journal
Cloud Computing is a new paradigm provides various host service [paas, saas, Iaas over the internet.
According to a self-service,on-demand and pay as you use business model,the customers will obtain the cloud
resources and services.It is a virtual shared service.Cloud Computing has three basic abstraction layers System
layer(Virtual Machine abstraction of a server),Platform layer(A virtualized operating system, database and
webserver of a server and Application layer(It includes Web Applications).Denial of Service attack is an attempt
to make a machine or network resource unavailable to the intended user. In DOS a user or organization is
deprived of the services of a resource they would normally expect to have.A Successful DOS attack is a highly
noticeable event impacting the entire online user base.DOS attack is found by First Mathematical Metrical
Method (Rate Controlling,Timing Window,Worst Case and Pattern Matching)DOS attack not only affect the
Quality of the service and also affect the performance of the server. DDOS attacks are launched from Botnet-A
large Cluster of Connected device(cellphone,pc or router) infected with malware that allow remote control by an
attacker. Intruder using SIPDAS in DDOS to perform attack.SIPDAS attack strategies are detected using Heap
Space Monitoring Algorithm.
An improved fading Kalman filter in the application of BDS dynamic positioningIJRES Journal
Aiming at the poor dynamic performance and low navigation precision of traditional fading
Kalman filter in BDS dynamic positioning, an improved fading Kalman filter based on fading factor vector is
proposed. The fading factor is extended to a fading factor vector, and each element of the vector corresponds to
each state component. Based on the difference between the actual observed quantity and the predicted one, the
value of the vector is changed automatically. The memory length of different channel is changed in real time
according to the dynamic property of the corresponding state component. The actual observation data of BDS is
used to test the algorithm. The experimental results show that compared with the traditional fading Kalman filter
and the method of the third references, the positioning precision of the algorithm is improved by 46.3% and
23.6% respectively.
Positioning Error Analysis and Compensation of Differential Precision WorkbenchIJRES Journal
Positioning error is a widely problem exists in mechanism, the important factors affecting machining
precision. In order to reduce the error caused by positioning problem processing, based on the differential
workbench as the research object, using the method of theoretical analysis and experimental verification, the
analysis of positioning error mechanism and source of complete differential precision workbench error
compensation, improve the accuracy of the device, provides a method for the application of modern machine
tools. table.
Status of Heavy metal pollution in Mithi river: Then and NowIJRES Journal
The Mithi River runs through the heart of suburban Mumbai. Its path of flow has been severely
damaged due to industrialization and urbanization. The quality of water has been deteriorating ever since. The
Municipal and industrial effluents are discharged in unchecked amounts. The municipal discharge comprises
untreated domestic and sewage wastes whereas the industries are majorly discharge chemicals and other toxic
effluents which are responsible in increasing the metal load of the river. In the current study, the water is
analysed for heavy metals- Copper, Cadmium, Chromium, Lead and Nickel. It also includes a brief
understanding on the fluctuations that have occurred in the heavy metal pollution, through the compilation of
studies carried out in the area previously.
The Low-Temperature Radiant Floor Heating System Design and Experimental Stud...IJRES Journal
In order to analyze the temperature distribution of the low-temperature radiant floor heating system
that uses the condensing wall-hung boiler as the heat source, the heating system is designed according to a typical
house facing south in Shanghai. The experiments are carried out to study the effects of the supply water
temperature on the thermal comfort of the system. Eventually, the supply water temperature that makes people in
the room feel more comfortable is obtained. The result shows that in the condition of that the outside temperature
is 8~15℃ and the relative humidity is 30~70%RH, the temperature distribution in the room is from high to low
when the height is from bottom to top. The floor surface temperature is highest, but its uniformity is very poor.
When the heating system reaches the steady state, the air temperature of the room is uniform. When the supply
water temperature is 63℃ The room is relatively comfortable at the above experimental condition.
Experimental study on critical closing pressure of mudstone fractured reservoirsIJRES Journal
In the process of oil and gas exploitation of mudstone-fractured reservoir in Daqing oilfield, the
permeability of fracture is easily affected by the influence of stress change, which is shown by the sensitivity of
the permeability to the stress. With the extension of time mining in the fractured mudstone reservoir, fracture
stress sensitivity is obvious in vast decline of production and great influence on reduced yields. In order to
reasonably determine the way of developing method, working system and the exploitation rate of the reservoir,
correspondingly protecting reservoir productivity, improve ultimate recovery. On the basis of the previous
research on the stress sensitivity of fractured mudstone, this essay studied the critical closing pressure of the
simulated underground fractured mudstone under the laboratory condition.
Correlation Analysis of Tool Wear and Cutting Sound SignalIJRES Journal
With the classic signal analysis and processing method, the cutting of the audio signal in time
domain and frequency domain analysis. We reached the following conclusions: in the time domain analysis,
cutting audio signals mean and the variance associated with tool wear state change occurred did not change
significantly, and tool wear is not high degree of correlation, and the mean-square value of the audio signal
changes in the size and tool wear the state has a good relationship.
Reduce Resources for Privacy in Mobile Cloud Computing Using Blowfish and DSA...IJRES Journal
Mobile cloud computing in light of the increasing popularity among users of mobile smart
technology which is the next indispensable that enables users to take advantage of the storage cloud computing
services. However, mobile cloud computing, the migration of information on the cloud is reliable their privacy
and security issues. Moreover, mobile cloud computing has limitations in resources such as power energy,
processor, Memory and storage. In this paper, we propose a solution to the problem of privacy with saving and
reducing resources power energy, processor and Memory. This is done through data encryption in the mobile
cloud computing by symmetric algorithm and sent to the private cloud and then the data is encrypted again and
sent to the public cloud through Asymmetric algorithm. The experimental results showed after a comparison
between encryption algorithms less time and less time to decryption are as follows: Blowfish algorithm for
symmetric and the DSA algorithm for Asymmetric. The analysis results showed a significant improvement in
reducing the resources in the period of time and power energy consumption and processor.
Resistance of Dryland Rice to Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Wlk.) Using ...IJRES Journal
Rice stem borer is one of the important pests that attack plants so as to reduce production. One way
to control pests is to use organic fertilizers that make the plant stronger and healthier. This study was conducted
to determine the effects of organic fertilizers with various doses without the use of pesticides in controlling stem
borer, Scirpophaga incertulas. Methods using split-split plot design which consists of two levels of the whole
plot factor (solid and liquid organic fertilizers), two levels of the subplot factor (conventional and industry,
Tiens and Mitraflora), and four levels of the sub-subplot factor of conventional and industry (5, 10, 15, 20
tonnes/ha), and one level of the sub-subplot factor of Tiens and Mitraflora (each 2 ml/l). Based on the results
Statistical analysis there were no significant differences among treatments and this shows that the use of organic
fertilizers that only a dose of 5 tonnes/ha is sufficient available nutrients that make plants more robust and
resistant to control stem borer, besides that can reduce production costs and friendly to the environment when
compared with using inorganic fertilizers.
A novel high-precision curvature-compensated CMOS bandgap reference without u...IJRES Journal
A novel high-precision curvature-compensated bandgap reference (BGR) without using op-amp
is presented in this paper. It is based on second-order curvature correction principle, which is a weighted sum of
two voltage curves which have opposite curvature characteristic. One voltage curve is achieved by first-order
curvature-compensated bandgap reference (FCBGR) without using op-amp and the other found by using W
function is achieved by utilizing a positive temperature coefficient (TC) exponential current and a linear
negative TC current to flow a linear resistor. The exponential current is gained by using anegative TC voltage to
control a MOSFET in sub-threshold region. In the temperature ranging from -40℃ to 125℃, experimental
results implemented with SMIC 0.18μm CMOS process demonstrate that the presented BGR can achieve a TC
as low as 2.2 ppm/℃ and power-supply rejection ratio(PSRR)is -69 dB without any filtering capacitor at 2.0 V.
While the range of the supply voltage is from 1.7 to 3.0 V, the output voltage line regulation is about1 mV/ V
and the maximum TC is 3.4 ppm/℃.
Structural aspect on carbon dioxide capture in nanotubesIJRES Journal
In this work we reported the carbon dioxide adsorption (CO2) in six different nanostructures in order
to investigate the capturing capacity of the materials at nanoscale. Here we have considered the three different
nanotubes including zinc oxide nanotube (ZnONT), silicon carbide nanotube (SiCNT) and single walled carbon
nanotube (SWCNT). Three different chiralities such as zigzag (9,0), armchair (5,5) and chiral (6,4) having
approximately same diameter are analyzed. The adsorption binding energy values under various cases are
estimated with density functional theory (DFT). We observed CO2 molecule chemisorbed on ZnONT and
SiCNT’s whereas the physisorption is predominant in CNT. To investigate the structural aspect, the tubes with
defects are studied and compared with defect free tubes. We have also analyzed the electrical properties of tubes
from HOMO, LUMO energies. Our results reveal the defected structure enhance the CO2 capture and is
predicted to be a potential candidate for environmental applications.
Thesummaryabout fuzzy control parameters selected based on brake driver inten...IJRES Journal
In this paper, the brake driving intention identification parameters based on the fuzzy control are
summarized and analyzed, the necessary parameters based on the fuzzy control of the brake driving intention
recognition are found out, and I pointed out the commonly corrupt parameters, and through the relevant
parameters , I establish the corresponding driving intention model.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
NO1 Uk best vashikaran specialist in delhi vashikaran baba near me online vas...Amil Baba Dawood bangali
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Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Drinking Water Quality and Sanitation Issues: A Survey of a Semi-Urban Setting in Nigeria
1. International Journal of Research in Engineering and Science (IJRES)
ISSN (Online): 2320-9364, ISSN (Print): 2320-9356
www.ijres.org Volume 2 Issue 11 ǁ November. 2014 ǁ PP.58-65
www.ijres.org 58 | Page
Drinking Water Quality and Sanitation Issues: A Survey of a
Semi-Urban Setting in Nigeria
David O. Olukanni1*
; Mercy A. Ebuetse1
; Winifred U. Anake2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Covenant University
2
Department of Chemistry, College of Science & Technology, Covenant University
Website: http://covenantuniversity.edu.ng/Profiles/OLUKANNI-David-O
Abstract An assessment on the drinking water quality from major source (borehole) and household in a semi-
urban setting in Nigeria was carried out. Structured questionnaire was administered to randomly selected
households in seven zones of the municipality to determine the common method of collection and transportation,
storage, and sanitation practices. Water samples collected were subjected to laboratory analyses for physico-
chemical and microbial properties. The result of the physico-chemical analysis when compared against the
World Health Organization (WHO) and Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) drinking water quality
benchmark revealed that the water samples were within standards for consumable water except for the presence
of feacal contamination. The result revealed that before water can be totally considered safe for drinking,
further treatment is required at the household level due to fecal contamination, and water safety concerns are
also highlighted. The result translates to the fact that compliance assessment with standards and impact
assessment studies in determining the fate of pollutants is necessary at all levels.
Keywords: Borehole water, Household water, Microbial properties, Ota, Physico-chemical properties, Water
quality.
I. Introduction
The continuous reported cases of water related illnesses over the years in many communities of
developing nations due to exposure to poor quality water supply are increasing (Pruss et al. 2002; Moszynski
2006; WHO and UNICEF 2010). According to a report by UNICEF and WHO, insufficient water, sanitation,
and hygiene issues account for a large part of the burden of illness with the most common waterborne disease as
diarrhea, having an annual incidence of 4.6 billion episodes and cause 2.2 million deaths every year in
developing countries (WHO 2010; UNICEF and WHO 2012). Ogwueleka (2014) expressed that the impact of
anthropogenic activities (industrial wastewater discharge, municipal wastewater effluents, solid waste
management practices and agricultural run-off) have inhibited access to quality water supply. Therefore, the
need for good quality water that would sustain lifes continues to be on the increase globally (Clasen et al. 2007;
Olukanni and Ugwu 2013). The effect of the insufficiency in the supply of treated piped-borne water is that
people in most communities resort to accessing water from other sources such as boreholes (private and
commercial), unprotected hand-dug wells, buying water from carts with small tanks, streams, ponds and springs
(Brown and Sobsey 2010; UNICEF 2012; Olukanni, 2013). However, threats associated with collection of water
from these sources due to the vulnerability of the areas include anthropogenic activities of people either at
source or in the course of collection, transporting and storage due to improper handling practices that results in
water pollution (Osibanjo 1994; Clasen & Bastable 2003; Stephen et al. 2004; WHO 2010; Badowski et al.
2011). Previous studies have also shown that the concentrations of contaminants are more pronounced in water
sources that are close to domestic refuse waste, abattoir, pit latrine, stagnant water and drainages while with
increasing distance, the concentration of pollutants decreases (Ayantobo et al., 2013).
Assessing compliance with standards, facilitating impact assessment studies, determining fate and
transport of pollutants among others are some of the several water qualities monitoring objectives (Karaman,
2013). Household water treatment and safe storage is one option for improving the quality of water for
consumption within the home, especially where water handling and storage is necessary and recontamination is
a risk between the point of collection and point of use. Long distance source, unreliable piped supplies and
reliance on rainwater are all factors that make household storage a necessity (UNICEF/WHO 2011). However,
water-related illnesses continue to be one of the health challenges in Nigeria. A representative semi-urban city in
Nigeria was chosen as a case study. Cases of water related diseases is a clear indication of drinking water
contamination, and it was crucial to investigate the physico-chemical and microbial properties of drinking water
quality in Ota, examine the extent to which drinking water are contaminated between the source of collection
and household storage, as well as compare the observed concentrations with the water quality permissible limits
specified by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the National Standard for Drinking Water Quality
2. Drinking Water Quality and Sanitation Issues: A Survey of a Semi-Urban Setting in Nigeria
www.ijres.org 59 | Page
(NSDWQ) through the Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON). The happenings in this city are a vivid
reflection of situations in many cities within the nation.
II. Materials and Method
Description of Study Area
Ota is the second largest and most industrialized city in Ogun State, Nigeria with a population of 527,242
residents and geographical coordinates 6° 36' 0" North, and 2° 56' 0" East. It is bordered on its Eastern part by
Lagos State, on the Northern part, Yewa and Ifo Local Governments and Ipokia Local Government in the west
(NPC 2006). Table 1 shows the data on water supply distribution to households by source for domestic purposes
which were estimated at a total of 130,821 people.
Table 1. Data on water supply distribution to households in Ota
Pipe-borne inside dwelling 3,630
Pipe-borne outside dwelling 17,375
Tanker supply/vendor 17,212
Well 35,641
Borehole 45,901
Rainwater 1,748
River/stream/spring 8,301
Dugout/pond 97
others 916
Total 130,821
Source: NPC 2010
Figure 1 shows the map of Ota and the selected locations for data capture.
III. Assessment Approach
Questionnaires were administered to randomly selected representatives that belonged to 140 households,
spread across seven (7) strategic zones of the city in an attempt to assess their most common source of drinking
N
3. Drinking Water Quality and Sanitation Issues: A Survey of a Semi-Urban Setting in Nigeria
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water, method of collection, and mode of transportation, storage and sanitation practices. The information
gathered in the selected locations is a representation of the cases in the entire municipality. Other means adopted
for data capture include interviews with residents, observation and focus group discussions. The probability
sampling method was adopted. This approach is basically the practice of taking random samples in which
selected households within a location in the municipality have the opportunity of being integrated into the
survey. The survey captured a population with a minimum of primary school education and within the age
bracket of 10 to 75 years old. Other information such as age, education, and quantity of water consumed daily,
satisfaction in terms of water quality supplied and other health related problems were captured.
IV. Water Samples Collection and Pretreatment Analysis
Water samples were collected from two different sources namely; household and boreholes, of seven
selected zones (Iju-Ota, Oju-Ore, Joju, Sango, Dalemo, Okede and Ijamido-Ota) of Ota municipality, and were
studied for physico-chemical and microbial parameters in the month of February through to April, 2013. Prior to
the collection of the water samples for physico-chemical tests, the bottles were washed with 20% analytical
grade nitric acid, rigorously rinsed with distill water and further rinsed with the samples to be collected. pH and
turbidity were tested immediately after sampling to avoid changes during storage and transport. Also, samples
were collected for microbial laboratory analysis using sterile sample bottles of 250ml, filled to near full capacity
and sealed with the screw cap. The collected samples were stored at 4o
C in an ice cooler and transported to the
laboratory immediately for physico-chemical and microbial analysis.
V. Physico-Chemical Analysis
The pH of the water samples was determined using portable Hanna microprocessor pH meter and other
physicochemical parameters such as total hardness, Total Dissolved Solid (TDS), alkalinity and salinity were
analyzed by standard methods given in American Public Health Association (APHA 1992). Turbidity was
determined using a standardized Hanna H198703 turbidimeter and conductivity was done using a Jenway
conductivity meter (4510 model). Phosphate was determined by colourimetry method and chloride by
argentometric method.
VI. Microbial Analysis
Studies have shown a link between the presence of faecal contamination in drinking water and incidence
of water related diseases. Therefore, the regulatory monitoring of the microbiological quality of drinking water
has relied on the identification of bacterial indicators such as coliforms, and then faecal coliforms, Escherichia
coli and enterococci (Beaudeau et al. 2010). The bacteriological analyses carried out on the samples include
E.coli, Faecal Coliform (FC) and number of Total Coliform (TC). The media used for the coliform test
microscopy of the water samples were Eosin Methylene blue agar (EMB) and Mackonkey agar (MCK). The
samples were inoculated into mackonkey broth and were incubated at 370
C. The Most Probable Number (MPN)
technique used in estimating microbial populations in waters, were done in three stages, namely, Presumptive
Test, Confirmative Test and Completed Test (APHA 1998). All the collected water samples were analyzed
within 24 hours.
VII. Results and Discussion
Basic Demographics and Household Characteristics
There was 100 percent recovery of the questionnaires distributed to the seven different zones selected for
the survey. Results obtained from the filled questionnaires showed that about 99% of the people in the
municipality depend on boreholes (private and commercial) erected by individuals as their drinking water
source, while the other 1% relies on open dug wells for their water source. In spite of the introduction of the
Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage (HWTS) scheme initiated by WHO for interventions that would
lead to improvements in drinking water quality and reductions in water related diseases, the people of the
community are yet to be well informed on this development. Proper sanitation is insufficient and the cost of
water and sanitation practices is unbearable by the residents. A significant proportion of the community‟s
population are low income earners, many of who live below an average income $140 per month. Thus a
significant part of the population could not afford some basic treatment and household storage facilities that
could prevent contamination. This situation applies to many other cities within the nation and other developing
countries.
The 20 liters container is the most commonly used container for collecting water from source
(commercial borehole) and 90 percent of these people carry containers on their head as shown in Figure 2, while
others carry it by hands with buckets that have handles with most communal users collecting water at least twice
a day. Some residents expressed that they use the collected water for only domestic purposes such as cooking,
4. Drinking Water Quality and Sanitation Issues: A Survey of a Semi-Urban Setting in Nigeria
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bathing, cleaning, washing and other general use but without drinking. Most residents buy the popularly called
“pure water sachet” for their consumption while some are indifferent, with the mindset that the water they drink
would not kill them. Most house types are the long informal type of building popularly called “face to face”
with an average of 10 rooms and five (5) household members in each.
Figure 2. Individual Fetching water with an open container at a commercial borehole stand-post
VIII. Mode of Transportation and Storage
The vessels used in transporting water from source to household are of various types. From the study, the
trend in the usage of these containers in carrying water from source to household are bucket (53.6%) > jerry can
(38.6%) > clay pots (0.7%) > others (4.3%) > not indicated (2.9%). It was noted that good quality water from
improved water sources (borehole) is contaminated due to lack of appropriate hygiene practice during transport
and storage of water. It was also observed that the greater percentage of persons involved in the fetching of
water were children, who most time do not pay attention to good hygiene practice. As such, water transported
from commercial source using dirty vessels and vessels without cover (Figure 2) to the household lead to
contamination of water in the household (IFRC 2008). More so, studies on water quality have shown that water
in rural and poor areas is often contaminated at the household level (the point of water use) (IFRC 2008).
From this study, 51% and 12% household water containers were drums and buckets respectively. Only 17%
were stored in jerry cans. Improved containers and storage vessels can protect stored household water from
microbial contaminants that could come through contact with hands, dippers and other contaminated objects.
Narrow necked vessels and dispensing devices, such as taps or spigots are preferable for storage compared to
open containers that are wide enough for cups and hands to be dipped into (Mintz et al. 1995; WHO 2011).
IX. Water Handling Behaviour and Hygiene
From the survey, buckets are used more frequently than any other vessel. It was discovered that higher
percentages (59.3%) of persons in the study area do not wash their hand before taking drinking water from the
household containers. This calls for awareness creation on the safe hygienic handling of water in the household.
It was also noted as shown in Figure 3 that in some households, the location of the water source is close to the
septic tank which could also be a source of fecal contamination.
5. Drinking Water Quality and Sanitation Issues: A Survey of a Semi-Urban Setting in Nigeria
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Figure 3. A household having water source close to the septic tank
X. Discussion on Physico - Chemical and Microbial Results
The water quality analysis of borehole and household water samples has been carried out for twelve
physico-chemical parameters i.e.; pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), conductivity, salinity, turbidity, alkalinity,
total hardness, chloride, iron, manganese, phosphate, and nitrate. Water samples collected from the borehole
were traced to the household where such water was stored to examine the extent to which drinking water is
contaminated between the source of collection and storage. The results shown in Tables 2 and 3 are the average
values of the measurements of the physico-chemical analysis of the water samples. BH and HH represent
borehole and household water qualities of the seven locations respectively.
Table 2: pH, Total Dissolved Solid, Conductivity, Salinity, Turbidity, Alkalinity, and
Nitrate values of drinking water in the borehole and household samples.
Sample Zones Iju Ota Oju-Ore Joju Sango Dalemo Okede Ijamido SON WHO
Source ID BH HH BH HH BH HH BH HH BH HH BH HH BH HH
pH 5.9 5.4 6.4 6.8 6.3 7.3 5.6 5.9 6.7 6.1 5.7 6.9 5.6 6.7
6.5-
8.5
6.5-
8.5
Total dissolved
solids (mg/L)
19.6 17.6 11.3 25.7 32.5 47.9 98.4 97 17.6 23.5 32 31.9 16.8 24.3 500 < 600
Conductivity
(μS/cm)
29.4 26.4 17 38.6 48.9 71.3 147 144.9 26.7 35.1 47.7 47.8 25.3 36.2 1000 -
Salinity
(mg/L)
14.7 13.2 8.5 19.3 24.5 35.7 73.5 72.5 13.4 17.5 23.9 23.9 12.7 18.3 - 200
Turbidity
(NTU)
0.53 1.79 1.94 0.87 0.64 0.47 0.79 0.39 1.9 0.2 1.02 0.61 1.01 1.02 5 <1
Alkalinity
(mg/L)
10 6 6 12 2 6 4 6 7.5 2 6 4 7 11 - 120
Table 3: Total Hardness, Chloride, Iron, Manganese and Phosphates values of drinking
water in the borehole and household samples.
Sample
Zones
Iju Ota Oju-Ore Joju Sango Dalemo Okede Ijamido SON
Source ID BH HH BH HH BH HH BH HH BH HH BH HH BH HH
Total
Hardness
(mg/L)
18 23 25 22 31 35 33 34 29 29 41 43 35 31 150
Chloride
(mg/L)
37.43 21.46 19.96 19.96 23.95 37.43 48.4 37.92 17.47 18.46 22.95 19.96 17.47 17.47 250
Phosphate
(mg/L)
10.2 9.3 7.96 10 9.2 8 9.74 10 8.9 9.9 9.4 8.2 6.9 9.7 -
6. Drinking Water Quality and Sanitation Issues: A Survey of a Semi-Urban Setting in Nigeria
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pH
Table 2 shows an increase in pH concentrations from the borehole to households in five samples namely Oju-
Ore, Joju, Sango, Okede, and Ijamido. The pH values ranged from 5.6 (Sango and Ijamido) to 6.7 (Dalemo) and
5.4 (Iju-Ota) to 7.3 (Joju) for borehole and household drinking water respectively. On the contrary, a decrease in
two sample locations from 5.9 to 5.4 (Iju-Ota) and from 6.7 to 6.1 (Dalemo) was observed. A comparative study
of the pH values of both drinking water sources indicates that the quality of water varies from source to source
and from location to location. The permissible limit of pH in the water is 6.5 to 8.5 (SON 2007). Results of pH
in the household drinking water sources showed that three locations, Iju-ota (5.4), Sango (5.9) and Dalemo (6.1)
out of seven where below the permissible limit, while the borehole source had only one location, Dalemo (6.7)
complying within the permissible limit. Maximum pH value of 7.3 was found in the sample collected from Joju,
while minimum value of 5.4 was found in Iju-Ota sample, both from household sources. The results show that
71% of the pH value for both water sources was observed in the acidic scale.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
The concentration of TDS in the BH and HH water samples were in the range of 11.3(Oju- Ore) to 98.4 mg/L
(Sango) and 17.6 (Iju-Ota) to 97 mg/L (Sango), respectively. The result showed that 57% of the analyzed
samples showed an increase in TDS from BH to HH as shown in Table 2. However, the obtained result
indicated values of TDS within maximum desirable limit (MDL) of 600 mg/L as recommended by W.H.O. High
levels of TDS may cause excessive scaling in water pipes, industrial and household appliances and adversely
affect taste of drinking water.
Conductivity and Salinity
Conductivity is a good indicator of pollution and it relates to the amount of total dissolved solids present in
water, but does not indicate the exact minerals that are present (Johnson and Scherer 2012; Narasimha et al.
2011). From Table 2, conductivity of the samples had values varying from 17 (Oju-Ore) to 147μs/cm (Sango)
and 26.4 (Iju- Ota) to 144.9 μs/cm (Sango) for the BH and HH water respectively. The conductivity of drinking-
water varied from the borehole to the household in 71% of the samples. Despite the observed increase, all the
conductivity values were still within the SON permissible limits for unpolluted water of 1000 μs/cm. From
Table 1, salinity was between 73.5 (Sango) to 8.5 mg/L (Oju-Ore) and 13.2 (Iju-Ota) to 72.5 mg/L (Sango)
borehole (BH) and household (HH) water respectively. There was an observed increased in salinity of the water
in 57% of the observed samples, when traced from point of collection (borehole) to the household where this
water are being stored. Notably, the recorded results were far below the maximum permissible limit of 200mg/L
prescribed by World Health Organization (WHO, 2011). Individuals who consume water with salinity value
above the maximum permissible limit may suffer the consequence of hypertension.
Turbidity and Alkalinity
The range of mean turbidity value obtained for BH and HH water were, 0.53 (Iju - Ota) to 1.94 NTU (Oju-Ore)
and 0.2 (Dalemo) to 1.79 NTU (Iju-Ota) respectively. An increase in turbidity was observed in 29% of the
samples from borehole to household as shown in Table 2. However, all the water samples had turbidity values
within the WHO permissible value of 5NTU (Table 2). Detection of turbidity in drinking water is important
because high turbidity reduces the effectiveness of disinfection by chlorine, and stimulates bacterial growth
thereby increasing the health risk to the consumer. Turbidity reduction in drinking water could cause visual
improvement in treated water that could help encourage correct and consistent use for water users (Preston et al.
2010).
The alkalinity of the BH and HH water ranged between 2 (Joju) to 10 mg/L (Iju-Ota) and 2 (Dalemo) to 12
mg/L (Oju- Ore) respectively. Also, the variation from the borehole to households revealed an increase in
alkalinity levels of four samples out of the seven samples. These four samples are: Oju-Ore, Joju, Sango, and
Ijamido. Alkalinity values for all the water samples as observed in Table 1, falls within the stipulated
permissible level. High-alkalinity waters may have a distinctly flat and unpleasant taste. A change in alkalinity
is an indication of pollution problems which is detrimental to humans. The permissible limit by WHO in water
is 120 mg/L (WHO 2011).
Total Hardness
From Table 3, the total hardness values in the studied samples for BH and HH water ranged from 18 (Iju- Ota)
to 41 mg/L (Okede) and 22 (Oju-Ore) to 43 mg/L (Okede), respectively. The variation in total hardness
concentrations from the borehole to households revealed an increase in concentration in three samples namely
Iju Ota, Oju-Ore and Okede. On comparing with stipulated standards, it was observed that results were far
7. Drinking Water Quality and Sanitation Issues: A Survey of a Semi-Urban Setting in Nigeria
www.ijres.org 64 | Page
below the 150 mg/L maximum permitted limit of Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON, 2007). Hence, the
borehole and household water samples are suitable for domestic purpose.
Chloride (Cl-
) and Phosphates (PO4
3-
)
The concentration of Cl-
as shown in (Table 3) ranged between 17.47 mg/L(Ijamido and Dalemo) to 48.4 mg/L
(Sango) and 17.47 ( Ijamido) to 37.92mg/L (Sango) obtained for BH and HH respectively. An increase in chloride
concentration was observed in 29% of the samples from borehole to household. However, levels greater than 250
mg/L may cause a salty taste to water and beverages as well as speed up corrosion in plumbing materials (WHO
2011). The concentration of PO4
3-
in the BH and HH water as shown in Table 3 ranged from 6.9 mg/L (Ijamido) to
10.2 mg/L (Iju Ota) and 8 mg/L (Joju) to10 mg/L ( Oju-Ore and Sango) respectively. Increase in Phosphate levels in
57% of the sample was observed, when traced from point of collection, borehole to the household.
Microbial Analysis
The results of the microbial analysis for three main indicators of microbial quality namely total coliform (TC), thermo
tolerant coliform and Escherichia coli (E.coli) for household water sources are presented.
Total Coliform and Thermotolerant coliforms
Total coliform are not indicators of health risk or faecal pollution, rather they inform on the quality of water from the
source of supply. The total coliform count from this study range between 25cfu/100ml in Joju and too numerous to
count (TNTC) in Oju-Ore, Sango, Okede and Ijamido HH water samples as shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Result of E.coli, Feacal Coliform and Total Coliform of the household samples
Zones Iju-
Ota
Oju-
Ore
Joju Sango Dalemo Okede Ijamido SON WHO
E.coli
(cfu/100ml)
19 6 12 TNTC TNTC 10 13 0 0
Faecal
Coliform
(cfu/100ml)
2 2 4 4 3 3 2 0 0
Total Coliform
(cfu/100ml)
41 TNTC 25 TNTC TNTC TNTC TNTC 10 0
The observed values exceeded the maximum accepted concentration limit of 0cfu/100ml and 10cfu/100ml established
by WHO and SON respectively. This result indicates poor water quality due to the presence of pathogenic bacteria
capable of causing significant illnesses. From Table 4, it was revealed that thermotolerant coliform, were present in all
the water samples and higher than maximum accepted concentration of 0cfu/100 ml standard set by both WHO and
SON. The thermo tolerant coliform present in each water sample were, 2cfu/100 ml (Iju-Ota, Oju-Ore and Ijamido),
3cfu/100 ml (Okede) and 4cfu/100 ml (Joju and Sango) respectively. This is an indication of household drinking-
water quality deterioration, which may occur as a result of multiple factors such as hand contact, method used to draw
water, and dirty collection containers. Also, there could be possibility of inadequate treatment and disinfection and
bacterial re-growth from the source due to seepage of sewage from septic tank into the borehole water as shown in
Figure 2.
Escherichia coli
E.coli, were found in all the water samples as follows: Oju- Ore (6cfu/ml), Okede (10cfu/ml), Joju (12cfu/ml), Ijamido
(13cfu/ml), Iju-Ota (19cfu/ml) and Sango (TNTC). The Oju-Ore sample showed low levels of contamination (less
than 10colonies per100ml), Okede, Joju , Ijamido and Iju-Ota samples showed medium levels of contamination
(between10 and19colonies per100ml), while Sango HH water sample revealed high levels of contamination (too
numerous to count). The observed result indicates that all water samples were all excessively greater than E.coli
maximum accepted concentration of 0cfu/ml for both WHO and SON, as shown in Table 4. The detection of the
E.coli indicator in the HH drinking water is a definite proof of the recent occurrence of faecal contamination and the
possible presence of enteric pathogens. Potential sources of contamination could be from shallow borehole,
underground waste seepage, and poor personal and domestic hygiene practices.
XI. Conclusion
The study reveals that poor sanitation characterizes the challenges affecting a significant proportion of the
population. However, in areas where the quality of water was better in the households, it implies that certain treatment
methods were applied by the minority and there was proper storage. This includes boiling of water and addition of
alum for which many residents complained of cost of fuel and electricity to boil water which in most cases is not
available. The residents complained of lack of power supply to drive pumps that will transfer water into overhead
tanks. Therefore, there is the need for a sustainable, efficient and affordable technology to be put in place to forestall
8. Drinking Water Quality and Sanitation Issues: A Survey of a Semi-Urban Setting in Nigeria
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the challenges associated with lack of access to adequate water supply and proper sanitation. The study revealed that
failure in treating water can be linked to the problem of water related illnesses such as diarrhea, typhoid, and cholera
in the municipality. Hence, to ensure access to safe drinking water, adequate storage vessel along with point-of-use
chemical disinfection of water and good hygiene practice should be encouraged.
Recommendation
In order to ensure safe drinking water in the study area, and other cities within the nation, the following steps should
be carried out; 1). Sanitary education such as safe collection and transport of water from source to household should
be conducted for everyone in the community; 2). There should be community education organized by the government
or water related bodies on treatment procedures that can be carried out at the household level; 3). Previous studies
have shown that vessels that are narrow necked often protect from contamination at the household level. Therefore,
government should make available suitable storage vessels at affordable prices for purchase by the households; 4).
There should be set rules and regulations by the government for individuals who sink boreholes to ensure the quality
of water.
Reference
[1.] American Public Health Association APHA 1992 Standard methods for analysis of water and wastewater.18th Ed. American
Public Health Association, Inc., Washington D C.
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