This document is a case study examining accessibility to water supply and waste disposal facilities in Oworonshoki slum area of Lagos, Nigeria. It finds that private individuals provide 64% of daily water while public provision is only 36%. The slum area faces serious problems with sanitation and hygiene due to lack of facilities and open defecation. The study evaluates accessibility and usefulness of water and waste services for improved living standards through surveys and analysis of the local population. Key issues identified include water scarcity, overflowing drains, infrequent waste collection contributing to unhygienic conditions and health risks for residents.
This document provides a review of groundwater pollution. It discusses how groundwater is an important source of water for drinking, agriculture, and industry. However, groundwater is vulnerable to pollution from various sources like agriculture, industrial activities, and contaminated land. The review summarizes the types of groundwater pollution including nitrates, heavy metals, microbiological contaminants, and more. It also discusses the health effects of contaminated groundwater. The document examines methods for studying groundwater pollution and contaminant transport, as well as remediation techniques used to treat contaminated groundwater.
An Overview Of Water Pollution Status In Ethiopia With A Particular Emphasis ...Nat Rice
This document reviews water pollution in Ethiopia, with an emphasis on the Akaki River in Addis Ababa. It finds that the Akaki River is polluted from domestic and industrial wastewater discharged without treatment. Pollutants have deteriorated the river's water quality beyond standards. Studies show 30% of Addis Ababa residents lack toilets and many discharge wastewater directly into the river. The river is now used for irrigation and drinking, despite being polluted and unsafe. This poses health risks like diarrhea to those exposed to the contaminated water. Proper management is needed to mitigate Akaki River's pollution problems.
Sanitation Mapping of Groundwater Contamination in a Rural Village of IndiaKavya Prabhakar
This study analyzed groundwater samples from 50 wells in a rural village in India to assess microbial contamination. Laboratory tests found high levels of total coliform, E. coli, and other bacteria in the samples, indicating the water was microbiologically unfit for consumption. A geographic analysis using GPS and GIS mapping found that most wells were located very close to latrines (average distance of 6.44 meters), shorter than the EPA guideline of 15.24 meters. Higher bacterial counts were found in wells located closer to latrines. The study concluded that poor siting of wells near latrines was a key reason for the groundwater contamination in the village.
Assessment of Source and Quality of Drinking Water in Coastal Area of Badin, ...iosrjce
Pakistan is a signatory to the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and has a commitment and
obligation to meet the targets relating to sanitation and water access to under privilege and underserved
people of Pakistan that are vulnerable to the development of safe drinking water as per the standard of World
Health Organization (WHO) and National standards. Poor people of coastal area are not only deprived of
financial resources but they are lacking basic needs such as education, health and safe drinking water.
Provision of safe drinking water in the coastal area is vital for reducing incidence of waterborne diseases such
as diarrhea, malaria, trachoma and hepatitis A & B. Present study was, therefore, undertaken to assess the
source and quality of drinking water in two Talukas of Badin district (Badin and Fazul Rahoo). The study areas
as surveyed are not provided with drinking water through water supply and are mostly relying on groundwater
and open ponds, causing various waterborne diseases and health problems. Coastal area of Badin being at tail
end of the water source, having shortages of surface water in the system, compelling people to obtain water
from distance i.e. from ponds and deep groundwater which is polluted and saline, making it unfit for safe
drinking purpose. The results of survey revealed that 88% of the villages of coastal area are getting water from
groundwater, while only 12% from the water supply schemes. On examination of physico-chemical analyses of
175 water samples from 49 villages of coastal area, it was found that 70% water samples contained various
degrees of contamination above the threshold values of WHO quality standard; hence making water unsafe for
drinking purpose
IRJET- Ground Water Analysis in and Around Peenya Industrial AreaIRJET Journal
This document summarizes a study analyzing groundwater quality in and around the Peenya Industrial Area of Bengaluru, India. Water samples were collected from bore wells in the area and tested for 22 parameters including pH, turbidity, hardness, chlorides, nitrates and more. The results found pH ranging from 6.65 to 7.35. Hardness ranged from 520 to 1100 mg/L. Nitrates were between 11 to 22 mg/L. The study aims to assess groundwater quality in the area and compare it to national standards to protect water resources.
This document is a case study examining accessibility to water supply and waste disposal facilities in Oworonshoki slum area of Lagos, Nigeria. It finds that private individuals provide 64% of daily water while public provision is only 36%. The slum area faces serious problems with sanitation and hygiene due to lack of facilities and open defecation. The study evaluates accessibility and usefulness of water and waste services for improved living standards through surveys and analysis of the local population. Key issues identified include water scarcity, overflowing drains, infrequent waste collection contributing to unhygienic conditions and health risks for residents.
This document provides a review of groundwater pollution. It discusses how groundwater is an important source of water for drinking, agriculture, and industry. However, groundwater is vulnerable to pollution from various sources like agriculture, industrial activities, and contaminated land. The review summarizes the types of groundwater pollution including nitrates, heavy metals, microbiological contaminants, and more. It also discusses the health effects of contaminated groundwater. The document examines methods for studying groundwater pollution and contaminant transport, as well as remediation techniques used to treat contaminated groundwater.
An Overview Of Water Pollution Status In Ethiopia With A Particular Emphasis ...Nat Rice
This document reviews water pollution in Ethiopia, with an emphasis on the Akaki River in Addis Ababa. It finds that the Akaki River is polluted from domestic and industrial wastewater discharged without treatment. Pollutants have deteriorated the river's water quality beyond standards. Studies show 30% of Addis Ababa residents lack toilets and many discharge wastewater directly into the river. The river is now used for irrigation and drinking, despite being polluted and unsafe. This poses health risks like diarrhea to those exposed to the contaminated water. Proper management is needed to mitigate Akaki River's pollution problems.
Sanitation Mapping of Groundwater Contamination in a Rural Village of IndiaKavya Prabhakar
This study analyzed groundwater samples from 50 wells in a rural village in India to assess microbial contamination. Laboratory tests found high levels of total coliform, E. coli, and other bacteria in the samples, indicating the water was microbiologically unfit for consumption. A geographic analysis using GPS and GIS mapping found that most wells were located very close to latrines (average distance of 6.44 meters), shorter than the EPA guideline of 15.24 meters. Higher bacterial counts were found in wells located closer to latrines. The study concluded that poor siting of wells near latrines was a key reason for the groundwater contamination in the village.
Assessment of Source and Quality of Drinking Water in Coastal Area of Badin, ...iosrjce
Pakistan is a signatory to the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and has a commitment and
obligation to meet the targets relating to sanitation and water access to under privilege and underserved
people of Pakistan that are vulnerable to the development of safe drinking water as per the standard of World
Health Organization (WHO) and National standards. Poor people of coastal area are not only deprived of
financial resources but they are lacking basic needs such as education, health and safe drinking water.
Provision of safe drinking water in the coastal area is vital for reducing incidence of waterborne diseases such
as diarrhea, malaria, trachoma and hepatitis A & B. Present study was, therefore, undertaken to assess the
source and quality of drinking water in two Talukas of Badin district (Badin and Fazul Rahoo). The study areas
as surveyed are not provided with drinking water through water supply and are mostly relying on groundwater
and open ponds, causing various waterborne diseases and health problems. Coastal area of Badin being at tail
end of the water source, having shortages of surface water in the system, compelling people to obtain water
from distance i.e. from ponds and deep groundwater which is polluted and saline, making it unfit for safe
drinking purpose. The results of survey revealed that 88% of the villages of coastal area are getting water from
groundwater, while only 12% from the water supply schemes. On examination of physico-chemical analyses of
175 water samples from 49 villages of coastal area, it was found that 70% water samples contained various
degrees of contamination above the threshold values of WHO quality standard; hence making water unsafe for
drinking purpose
IRJET- Ground Water Analysis in and Around Peenya Industrial AreaIRJET Journal
This document summarizes a study analyzing groundwater quality in and around the Peenya Industrial Area of Bengaluru, India. Water samples were collected from bore wells in the area and tested for 22 parameters including pH, turbidity, hardness, chlorides, nitrates and more. The results found pH ranging from 6.65 to 7.35. Hardness ranged from 520 to 1100 mg/L. Nitrates were between 11 to 22 mg/L. The study aims to assess groundwater quality in the area and compare it to national standards to protect water resources.
The document discusses the challenges of domestic wastewater management in Kabul City, Afghanistan. It finds that over 50% of households do not have improved toilets and there are no proper wastewater treatment plants. Approximately 100% of domestic wastewater is discharged untreated into the environment, causing health and environmental problems. The key challenges include lack of sanitation facilities, wastewater treatment, and drainage systems as well as poor government responsibilities and public participation. Sustainable solutions proposed include decentralized wastewater treatment, legislation, public involvement, and a sustainable management framework.
Rain Water Harvesting and Impact of Microbial Pollutants on Ground Water Rese...IJERA Editor
Developing countries are under heavy stress due to continuous depletion of ground water reserves. The urban
areas are developing and growing very fast due to population growth, increase in commercial and trade
activities, national and international tourism development as trade. The local migration of rural population due
to better job opportunities. Civic amenities are also the reason for population explosion in urban areas and thus
there is increase in the demand of basic needs like water, shelter and power. Due to the overall consumption of
water in urban and rural areas which has increased many fold in the recent past, causing depletion of water subsurface
reserves due to difference in natural recharge of reservoirs and the corresponding water demand. The
ground water is an integral part of the environment and there has been a lack of adequate attention to water
conservation, water use and reuse, ground water recharge, and ecosystem sustainability. To meet with the
challenge of under ground water shortage, lowering level of water table, efforts are being made to recharge the
aquifer system by the Rain Water Harvesting (R.W.H.). This noble act needs serious thought and follow up to
achieve the aim of recharging ground water free from pollutants like pesticide, bacteria and seepage causing
infection and pollution of the existing pure source of potable water. A study has therefore undertaken to assess
the possible bacterial intrusion through the rain water penetration at the deeper water bearing aquifers.
Characterization of Physicochemical Water Quality Parameters of River Gudar (...IOSRJAC
Due to various natural and anthropogenic activities, quality of water was deteriorated in most towns of the country. These changes make or forced the community to depend on unsafe and poor water consumption. River Gudar is one of the rivers found in towns of the country, and exposed to many anthropogenic activities done around the town. Importance of river Gudar is strongly linked to Domestic consumption, Irrigation, Industrial (HAEF) and other public health. Under the investigation physicochemical parameters and selected heavy metals for the quality of river Gudar for drinking purpose were characterized. The laboratory results for both physicochemical parameters and selected heavy metals were: Alkalinity (154 ± 15.556 mg/L), pH (8.44), Electrical Conductivity (316.47 ± 72.802 Scm-1 ), TDS (149.37 ± 20.64 mg/L), Ammonia (41.00 ± 1.19 mg/L), Phosphate (3.50 ± 0.32mg/L), Total Hardness (156.87 ± 8.46 mg/L CaCO3), Sodium (17.44 ± 2.87mg/L), Potassium (8.51 ± 0.33 mg/L) and some selected heavy metals such as Cu (0.29 ± 0.04 mg/L ), Pb (2.5 ± 0.25 mg/L), Zn (0.63 ± 0.24 mg/L), Cd (0.79 ± 0.19 mg/L) and Ag (0.35 ± 0.17 mg/L) for water sample.
IRJET- Assessment of Drinking Water Quality Parameters in Mullaghori Khyb...IRJET Journal
This study assessed the drinking water quality in Mullaghori, Khyber Agency. Water samples were collected from 5 areas and tested for physical and chemical parameters. Most samples showed color levels higher than WHO and NEQS standards. Alkalinity levels were within standards in most samples but higher levels can cause health issues like nausea and vomiting. While nitrate levels were acceptable, other parameters showed some variation from standards that could impact community health. The study highlights the need for improved water sources and treatment in the remote mountainous region.
Domestic water pollution_among_local_communities_im waseem noonari
Domestic water pollution is a major problem among local communities in Nigeria. The main causes include improper waste disposal from homes, markets, abattoirs and oil spills. Homes dump sewage, trash and other wastes directly into water sources. Local markets dump food waste, cosmetics and butcher waste into rivers and wells. Abattoirs release blood and feces into waterways. Oil spills from pipelines contaminate water. This widespread pollution has led to many water-borne diseases in communities and elevated heavy metal levels in water sources. Improved sanitation, waste management education, water infrastructure funding, and enforcement of regulations are needed to address domestic water pollution in Nigeria.
There are three main points summarized from the document:
1) Taraba State in Nigeria faces significant challenges in providing reliable water infrastructure and sanitation services to its population. Only 2 of 14 water treatment plants are fully operational, and over half of the population lacks access to basic sanitation.
2) Broken or aging water distribution systems allow contamination to enter drinking water supplies. Leaking pipes waste water and money. Many residents receive intermittent, low quality water services.
3) Building the capacity of water treatment plant staff and increasing community education on hygiene and sanitation practices could help address water quality issues. However, more investment is needed to repair and maintain water infrastructure across Taraba State.
Evaluation of Potential Physico-Chemical Ground Water Pollution: a Case Study...EditorIJAERD
Ground water is a large source of water for utilisation in the world. This resource is not easily accessible to
monitor its changes and its deterioration is not easy to reverse. In the current study, physico-chemical parameters of
groundwater for Kiwanja Market (KM) were analysed and compared to the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBs) water
quality. The pH, DO, temperature, turbidity, chlorine, iron, water hardness, potassium and calcium were analysed. All the
parameters studied were within the stipulated levels except iron, and chloride for samples from point C (Ebenezer Hostel).
Turbidity for samples from points A and C were above the permissible levels of KEBs standards. The water sampled from
point A and C may require further treatment to allow for domestic use. This analysis revealed to some extent a healthier
system, though further analysis is needed to support this assertion. Continuous monitoring of the groundwater sources
within KM should be taken on regular basis to detect any changes and to sustainably maintain the quality of water within
the required KEBs water quality standards.
Study of the Quality of Irrigation Water in South-East El-Kantara Canal, Nort...Medhat Elzahar
The document examines the quality of irrigation water used in the South-East El-Kantara Canal in North Sinai, Egypt, which receives a 1:1 mixture of agricultural wastewater and Nile freshwater. Water samples were collected monthly from 6 locations along the canal from 2007-2014 and analyzed for parameters including salinity, pathogens, nutrients, oxygen levels. The results show that several parameters such as BOD, NO3, and fecal coliform levels exceeded Egyptian standards. The study concludes the water quality restricts use for irrigating some crops and recommends pretreating the agricultural wastewater, such as with aerated lagoons, before mixing with Nile water to satisfy standards.
Safe drinking water is essential for public health but access remains limited globally. Over 2 billion people lack access to improved sanitation and 1.1 billion lack access to safe drinking water according to WHO. Providing safe drinking water is challenging, especially for growing urban populations, but is critical because contaminated water leads to health hazards. International initiatives aim to improve access, but continued efforts are needed to reduce disparities and meet targets. For developing countries in particular, safe water infrastructure is a high priority for public health and development in the 21st century.
The document summarizes various studies on water quality in Erbil governorate. It finds that water sample quality varied by time and location, with some sites showing pollution. Testing of the Greater Zap river found the water was not safe for drinking due to bacterial indicators. Some lake water also showed eutrophic conditions. The objectives are to summarize existing information on natural and drinking water quality and identify gaps. It concludes that groundwater is generally suitable for drinking but some showed nitrate and mineral contamination. Surface water quality varied, with some parameters within WHO guidelines and others exceeding limits. Improved management strategies are needed like establishing water quality standards, a national water quality database, and a Kurdistan Environmental Protection Agency to continuously monitor water
This document describes a thesis that proposes developing an automated non-sewage wastewater treatment facility using Moringa oleifera seeds. It discusses how water scarcity is a growing problem due to population growth, climate change, and other factors. Moringa oleifera seeds show potential as a natural and low-cost method for purifying wastewater by reducing turbidity, pH levels, and bacteria. The thesis aims to fabricate such a facility and evaluate its ability to improve various physio-chemical and bacteriological characteristics of wastewater, as well as the performance efficiencies of the treatment processes involved.
This document summarizes an article that examines the impact of industrial effluents on water quality in Nigerian rivers. It finds that industrial wastewater entering water bodies represents a major source of pollution, affecting water quality, microbes, and aquatic life. Characteristics of industrial effluents like turbidity, conductivity, COD, TSS, BOD, and hardness are abnormal. The effluents contain nutrients that promote growth of coliform bacteria and other microbes. Sources of industrial effluents discussed include the pharmaceutical, soap and detergent, textile, food and beverage, pulp and paper industries. The effluents introduce pollutants like heavy metals, pathogens, and decomposing organic waste that deterior
Water Quality and Sediment Analysis of Selected Rivers at Satara District, Ma...ijtsrd
Water pollution is one of the major global environmental problems. It is an acute problem almost in all major rivers and water reservoirs in India. Water pollution is increasing and becoming severe day by day and posing a great risk to human health and other living organisms. There is growing concern on the deterioration of ground water quality due to geogenic and anthropogenic activities. Present investigation aims at insight about the level of contaminants of surface water, groundwater and sediment analysis of selected rivers of Krishna River located in Mahuli and Urmodi river located in Nagthane, Satara district. An attempt has been made to assess the water quality, sediment analysis of the samples. Dissolved oxygen content of the water samples was observed quite well in limits such as in Krishna river Mahuli DO was 27.68mg L and in Urmodi river Nagthane was13.68mg .In the present study, COD value was observed by 720mg l at surface water of Krishna River Mahuliand 1320 mg l at surface water sample of Urmodi river Nagthane. As expected groundwater samples showed values of hardness within a limit. There is an urgent need for more representative samples to be used to go beyond preliminary assessment as reported in the present study for making appropriate recommendations. Pallavi Dhekale | Pranjal Nikam | Sagar Dadas | Chetana Patil "Water Quality and Sediment Analysis of Selected Rivers at Satara District, Maharashtra" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-6 , October 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd28062.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/pharmacy/medicinal-chemistry/28062/water-quality-and-sediment-analysis-of-selected-rivers-at-satara-district-maharashtra/pallavi-dhekale
PLANNING FOR SELF RELIANT AND SUSTAINABLE CITY IN TERMS OF WATER SUPPLYshrikrishna kesharwani
This document outlines a dissertation topic on planning for a self-reliant and sustainable city in terms of water supply. The main aim is to identify solutions to make a city independent and environmentally-friendly for its water needs. The objectives include identifying existing problems, sustainability methods, and a methodology to calculate future demand. The background discusses international and national water concerns like scarcity. Major issues facing cities are identified as increased demand, groundwater depletion, and pollution. Potential solutions proposed include recycling wastewater, rainwater harvesting, and education. Parameters for analyzing solutions include cost, environmental impact, lifetime, area needs, and social acceptance. The document concludes by discussing how to calculate a city's future needs and select sustainable methods to make
Study of Microbial Pollution in River Beehar Water District Rewa Madhya Prade...IJERA Editor
Water is one of the best gifts to all living creature, given by nature. It is compulsory for the growth and maintenance of human body and also for many biological activities. It plays a vital role for the survival of all forms of life of earth and works as a universal solvent. Pollution is caused when a change in the physical, chemical or biological condition in the environment harmfully affect quality of human life including other animal’s life and plant The quality of water is typically determined by monitoring microbial presence, especially total coliforms, fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci. The total coliform count varied in the range of 836-1987.43 MPN/100 ml, 743-981 MPN/100ml, 1115.4 to 2010 MPN/100 ml; fecal coliform varied in the range of 763-1947.61 MPN/100 ml, 547-979 MPN/100 ml and 1057 to 1378 MPN/100 ml and fecal streptococci varied in the range of 881-1969.53 and 832.63-1098.86 MPN/100 ml, 1155 to 1512 MPN/100 ml during winter, summer and rainy season, respectively.
On Earth water has too many forms and variety which
are necessary specifically for particular geographical as well as
environmental surroundings. Below 1% of the world's fresh
water (0.007% of all water on earth) is reachable for direct
human uses. Water pollutions now become a part of concern and
disquiet in country like India. Large parts of water which are life
supportive get contaminated because of illegal activities of human
beings. Water effluence is a major problem globally. It is the
leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases, and that it
accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. In
addition to the acute problems of different problems in
developing countries, industrialized countries continue to
struggle with water pollution problems as well. There are many
inorganic metals which are contaminating water bodies which
serve life to large part of India, Arsenic (As) is one of the biggest
threats for water bodies. High toxicity of Arsenic poses a serious
risk not only to ecological systems but also for human health.
There is availability of sophisticated techniques for arsenic
removal from contaminated water, development of new
laboratory based techniques along with cost reduction and
enhancement of conventional techniques are essential for the
benefit of common people. This paper is based on the future
aspects, for removal of Arsenic from drinking water or the water
of different rivers like Ganga, Gomti and Yamuna etc which
humans are consuming for domestic purpose. Demograph
estimate that around 52 millions peoples are drinking ground
water with arsenic concentrations above the guidelines of World
Health Organization. WHO proposed a parameter or MIC for
Arsenic i.e. of 10 parts per billion (ppb) or 0.010 Mg/L, it is found
that level of Arsenic has been increased vigorously in many
rivers. Objective is to apply Bioremediation technique with the
help of batch culture that needs Bioremediators to detoxify
contaminated water and helps in maintaining the original quality
of water.
The Analysis of Wastewater Treatment System Efficiencies in Kenya: A Review P...FloryKilingo
This document reviews the efficiency of different wastewater treatment methods used in Kenya. It finds that the most commonly used methods are constructed wetlands, stabilization ponds coupled with constructed wetlands, and conventional wastewater treatment systems. However, the final effluents of many treatment systems do not meet national water quality standards. The document examines the wastewater situation and treatment in Kenya, particularly in Nairobi, and concludes that a low-cost, high removal efficiency method like constructed wetlands would be most suitable for treating domestic wastewater in slum areas.
This document discusses World Water Day, which is observed annually on March 22nd to promote sustainable management of water resources. It notes that water use has been growing faster than population increases, with the majority used for irrigation and a smaller portion for household and industrial purposes. Water scarcity in cities is exacerbated by population growth, urbanization, industrialization, climate change, pollution, and conflicts. The document outlines various efforts by the UN and countries like India to improve access to water and promote conservation and sustainable water management.
Presented by The Global Peatlands Assessment: Mapping, Policy, and Action at GLF Peatlands 2024 - The Global Peatlands Assessment: Mapping, Policy, and Action
The document discusses the challenges of domestic wastewater management in Kabul City, Afghanistan. It finds that over 50% of households do not have improved toilets and there are no proper wastewater treatment plants. Approximately 100% of domestic wastewater is discharged untreated into the environment, causing health and environmental problems. The key challenges include lack of sanitation facilities, wastewater treatment, and drainage systems as well as poor government responsibilities and public participation. Sustainable solutions proposed include decentralized wastewater treatment, legislation, public involvement, and a sustainable management framework.
Rain Water Harvesting and Impact of Microbial Pollutants on Ground Water Rese...IJERA Editor
Developing countries are under heavy stress due to continuous depletion of ground water reserves. The urban
areas are developing and growing very fast due to population growth, increase in commercial and trade
activities, national and international tourism development as trade. The local migration of rural population due
to better job opportunities. Civic amenities are also the reason for population explosion in urban areas and thus
there is increase in the demand of basic needs like water, shelter and power. Due to the overall consumption of
water in urban and rural areas which has increased many fold in the recent past, causing depletion of water subsurface
reserves due to difference in natural recharge of reservoirs and the corresponding water demand. The
ground water is an integral part of the environment and there has been a lack of adequate attention to water
conservation, water use and reuse, ground water recharge, and ecosystem sustainability. To meet with the
challenge of under ground water shortage, lowering level of water table, efforts are being made to recharge the
aquifer system by the Rain Water Harvesting (R.W.H.). This noble act needs serious thought and follow up to
achieve the aim of recharging ground water free from pollutants like pesticide, bacteria and seepage causing
infection and pollution of the existing pure source of potable water. A study has therefore undertaken to assess
the possible bacterial intrusion through the rain water penetration at the deeper water bearing aquifers.
Characterization of Physicochemical Water Quality Parameters of River Gudar (...IOSRJAC
Due to various natural and anthropogenic activities, quality of water was deteriorated in most towns of the country. These changes make or forced the community to depend on unsafe and poor water consumption. River Gudar is one of the rivers found in towns of the country, and exposed to many anthropogenic activities done around the town. Importance of river Gudar is strongly linked to Domestic consumption, Irrigation, Industrial (HAEF) and other public health. Under the investigation physicochemical parameters and selected heavy metals for the quality of river Gudar for drinking purpose were characterized. The laboratory results for both physicochemical parameters and selected heavy metals were: Alkalinity (154 ± 15.556 mg/L), pH (8.44), Electrical Conductivity (316.47 ± 72.802 Scm-1 ), TDS (149.37 ± 20.64 mg/L), Ammonia (41.00 ± 1.19 mg/L), Phosphate (3.50 ± 0.32mg/L), Total Hardness (156.87 ± 8.46 mg/L CaCO3), Sodium (17.44 ± 2.87mg/L), Potassium (8.51 ± 0.33 mg/L) and some selected heavy metals such as Cu (0.29 ± 0.04 mg/L ), Pb (2.5 ± 0.25 mg/L), Zn (0.63 ± 0.24 mg/L), Cd (0.79 ± 0.19 mg/L) and Ag (0.35 ± 0.17 mg/L) for water sample.
IRJET- Assessment of Drinking Water Quality Parameters in Mullaghori Khyb...IRJET Journal
This study assessed the drinking water quality in Mullaghori, Khyber Agency. Water samples were collected from 5 areas and tested for physical and chemical parameters. Most samples showed color levels higher than WHO and NEQS standards. Alkalinity levels were within standards in most samples but higher levels can cause health issues like nausea and vomiting. While nitrate levels were acceptable, other parameters showed some variation from standards that could impact community health. The study highlights the need for improved water sources and treatment in the remote mountainous region.
Domestic water pollution_among_local_communities_im waseem noonari
Domestic water pollution is a major problem among local communities in Nigeria. The main causes include improper waste disposal from homes, markets, abattoirs and oil spills. Homes dump sewage, trash and other wastes directly into water sources. Local markets dump food waste, cosmetics and butcher waste into rivers and wells. Abattoirs release blood and feces into waterways. Oil spills from pipelines contaminate water. This widespread pollution has led to many water-borne diseases in communities and elevated heavy metal levels in water sources. Improved sanitation, waste management education, water infrastructure funding, and enforcement of regulations are needed to address domestic water pollution in Nigeria.
There are three main points summarized from the document:
1) Taraba State in Nigeria faces significant challenges in providing reliable water infrastructure and sanitation services to its population. Only 2 of 14 water treatment plants are fully operational, and over half of the population lacks access to basic sanitation.
2) Broken or aging water distribution systems allow contamination to enter drinking water supplies. Leaking pipes waste water and money. Many residents receive intermittent, low quality water services.
3) Building the capacity of water treatment plant staff and increasing community education on hygiene and sanitation practices could help address water quality issues. However, more investment is needed to repair and maintain water infrastructure across Taraba State.
Evaluation of Potential Physico-Chemical Ground Water Pollution: a Case Study...EditorIJAERD
Ground water is a large source of water for utilisation in the world. This resource is not easily accessible to
monitor its changes and its deterioration is not easy to reverse. In the current study, physico-chemical parameters of
groundwater for Kiwanja Market (KM) were analysed and compared to the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBs) water
quality. The pH, DO, temperature, turbidity, chlorine, iron, water hardness, potassium and calcium were analysed. All the
parameters studied were within the stipulated levels except iron, and chloride for samples from point C (Ebenezer Hostel).
Turbidity for samples from points A and C were above the permissible levels of KEBs standards. The water sampled from
point A and C may require further treatment to allow for domestic use. This analysis revealed to some extent a healthier
system, though further analysis is needed to support this assertion. Continuous monitoring of the groundwater sources
within KM should be taken on regular basis to detect any changes and to sustainably maintain the quality of water within
the required KEBs water quality standards.
Study of the Quality of Irrigation Water in South-East El-Kantara Canal, Nort...Medhat Elzahar
The document examines the quality of irrigation water used in the South-East El-Kantara Canal in North Sinai, Egypt, which receives a 1:1 mixture of agricultural wastewater and Nile freshwater. Water samples were collected monthly from 6 locations along the canal from 2007-2014 and analyzed for parameters including salinity, pathogens, nutrients, oxygen levels. The results show that several parameters such as BOD, NO3, and fecal coliform levels exceeded Egyptian standards. The study concludes the water quality restricts use for irrigating some crops and recommends pretreating the agricultural wastewater, such as with aerated lagoons, before mixing with Nile water to satisfy standards.
Safe drinking water is essential for public health but access remains limited globally. Over 2 billion people lack access to improved sanitation and 1.1 billion lack access to safe drinking water according to WHO. Providing safe drinking water is challenging, especially for growing urban populations, but is critical because contaminated water leads to health hazards. International initiatives aim to improve access, but continued efforts are needed to reduce disparities and meet targets. For developing countries in particular, safe water infrastructure is a high priority for public health and development in the 21st century.
The document summarizes various studies on water quality in Erbil governorate. It finds that water sample quality varied by time and location, with some sites showing pollution. Testing of the Greater Zap river found the water was not safe for drinking due to bacterial indicators. Some lake water also showed eutrophic conditions. The objectives are to summarize existing information on natural and drinking water quality and identify gaps. It concludes that groundwater is generally suitable for drinking but some showed nitrate and mineral contamination. Surface water quality varied, with some parameters within WHO guidelines and others exceeding limits. Improved management strategies are needed like establishing water quality standards, a national water quality database, and a Kurdistan Environmental Protection Agency to continuously monitor water
This document describes a thesis that proposes developing an automated non-sewage wastewater treatment facility using Moringa oleifera seeds. It discusses how water scarcity is a growing problem due to population growth, climate change, and other factors. Moringa oleifera seeds show potential as a natural and low-cost method for purifying wastewater by reducing turbidity, pH levels, and bacteria. The thesis aims to fabricate such a facility and evaluate its ability to improve various physio-chemical and bacteriological characteristics of wastewater, as well as the performance efficiencies of the treatment processes involved.
This document summarizes an article that examines the impact of industrial effluents on water quality in Nigerian rivers. It finds that industrial wastewater entering water bodies represents a major source of pollution, affecting water quality, microbes, and aquatic life. Characteristics of industrial effluents like turbidity, conductivity, COD, TSS, BOD, and hardness are abnormal. The effluents contain nutrients that promote growth of coliform bacteria and other microbes. Sources of industrial effluents discussed include the pharmaceutical, soap and detergent, textile, food and beverage, pulp and paper industries. The effluents introduce pollutants like heavy metals, pathogens, and decomposing organic waste that deterior
Water Quality and Sediment Analysis of Selected Rivers at Satara District, Ma...ijtsrd
Water pollution is one of the major global environmental problems. It is an acute problem almost in all major rivers and water reservoirs in India. Water pollution is increasing and becoming severe day by day and posing a great risk to human health and other living organisms. There is growing concern on the deterioration of ground water quality due to geogenic and anthropogenic activities. Present investigation aims at insight about the level of contaminants of surface water, groundwater and sediment analysis of selected rivers of Krishna River located in Mahuli and Urmodi river located in Nagthane, Satara district. An attempt has been made to assess the water quality, sediment analysis of the samples. Dissolved oxygen content of the water samples was observed quite well in limits such as in Krishna river Mahuli DO was 27.68mg L and in Urmodi river Nagthane was13.68mg .In the present study, COD value was observed by 720mg l at surface water of Krishna River Mahuliand 1320 mg l at surface water sample of Urmodi river Nagthane. As expected groundwater samples showed values of hardness within a limit. There is an urgent need for more representative samples to be used to go beyond preliminary assessment as reported in the present study for making appropriate recommendations. Pallavi Dhekale | Pranjal Nikam | Sagar Dadas | Chetana Patil "Water Quality and Sediment Analysis of Selected Rivers at Satara District, Maharashtra" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-6 , October 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd28062.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/pharmacy/medicinal-chemistry/28062/water-quality-and-sediment-analysis-of-selected-rivers-at-satara-district-maharashtra/pallavi-dhekale
PLANNING FOR SELF RELIANT AND SUSTAINABLE CITY IN TERMS OF WATER SUPPLYshrikrishna kesharwani
This document outlines a dissertation topic on planning for a self-reliant and sustainable city in terms of water supply. The main aim is to identify solutions to make a city independent and environmentally-friendly for its water needs. The objectives include identifying existing problems, sustainability methods, and a methodology to calculate future demand. The background discusses international and national water concerns like scarcity. Major issues facing cities are identified as increased demand, groundwater depletion, and pollution. Potential solutions proposed include recycling wastewater, rainwater harvesting, and education. Parameters for analyzing solutions include cost, environmental impact, lifetime, area needs, and social acceptance. The document concludes by discussing how to calculate a city's future needs and select sustainable methods to make
Study of Microbial Pollution in River Beehar Water District Rewa Madhya Prade...IJERA Editor
Water is one of the best gifts to all living creature, given by nature. It is compulsory for the growth and maintenance of human body and also for many biological activities. It plays a vital role for the survival of all forms of life of earth and works as a universal solvent. Pollution is caused when a change in the physical, chemical or biological condition in the environment harmfully affect quality of human life including other animal’s life and plant The quality of water is typically determined by monitoring microbial presence, especially total coliforms, fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci. The total coliform count varied in the range of 836-1987.43 MPN/100 ml, 743-981 MPN/100ml, 1115.4 to 2010 MPN/100 ml; fecal coliform varied in the range of 763-1947.61 MPN/100 ml, 547-979 MPN/100 ml and 1057 to 1378 MPN/100 ml and fecal streptococci varied in the range of 881-1969.53 and 832.63-1098.86 MPN/100 ml, 1155 to 1512 MPN/100 ml during winter, summer and rainy season, respectively.
On Earth water has too many forms and variety which
are necessary specifically for particular geographical as well as
environmental surroundings. Below 1% of the world's fresh
water (0.007% of all water on earth) is reachable for direct
human uses. Water pollutions now become a part of concern and
disquiet in country like India. Large parts of water which are life
supportive get contaminated because of illegal activities of human
beings. Water effluence is a major problem globally. It is the
leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases, and that it
accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. In
addition to the acute problems of different problems in
developing countries, industrialized countries continue to
struggle with water pollution problems as well. There are many
inorganic metals which are contaminating water bodies which
serve life to large part of India, Arsenic (As) is one of the biggest
threats for water bodies. High toxicity of Arsenic poses a serious
risk not only to ecological systems but also for human health.
There is availability of sophisticated techniques for arsenic
removal from contaminated water, development of new
laboratory based techniques along with cost reduction and
enhancement of conventional techniques are essential for the
benefit of common people. This paper is based on the future
aspects, for removal of Arsenic from drinking water or the water
of different rivers like Ganga, Gomti and Yamuna etc which
humans are consuming for domestic purpose. Demograph
estimate that around 52 millions peoples are drinking ground
water with arsenic concentrations above the guidelines of World
Health Organization. WHO proposed a parameter or MIC for
Arsenic i.e. of 10 parts per billion (ppb) or 0.010 Mg/L, it is found
that level of Arsenic has been increased vigorously in many
rivers. Objective is to apply Bioremediation technique with the
help of batch culture that needs Bioremediators to detoxify
contaminated water and helps in maintaining the original quality
of water.
The Analysis of Wastewater Treatment System Efficiencies in Kenya: A Review P...FloryKilingo
This document reviews the efficiency of different wastewater treatment methods used in Kenya. It finds that the most commonly used methods are constructed wetlands, stabilization ponds coupled with constructed wetlands, and conventional wastewater treatment systems. However, the final effluents of many treatment systems do not meet national water quality standards. The document examines the wastewater situation and treatment in Kenya, particularly in Nairobi, and concludes that a low-cost, high removal efficiency method like constructed wetlands would be most suitable for treating domestic wastewater in slum areas.
This document discusses World Water Day, which is observed annually on March 22nd to promote sustainable management of water resources. It notes that water use has been growing faster than population increases, with the majority used for irrigation and a smaller portion for household and industrial purposes. Water scarcity in cities is exacerbated by population growth, urbanization, industrialization, climate change, pollution, and conflicts. The document outlines various efforts by the UN and countries like India to improve access to water and promote conservation and sustainable water management.
Presented by The Global Peatlands Assessment: Mapping, Policy, and Action at GLF Peatlands 2024 - The Global Peatlands Assessment: Mapping, Policy, and Action
ENVIRONMENT~ Renewable Energy Sources and their future prospects.tiwarimanvi3129
This presentation is for us to know that how our Environment need Attention for protection of our natural resources which are depleted day by day that's why we need to take time and shift our attention to renewable energy sources instead of non-renewable sources which are better and Eco-friendly for our environment. these renewable energy sources are so helpful for our planet and for every living organism which depends on environment.
Climate Change All over the World .pptxsairaanwer024
Climate change refers to significant and lasting changes in the average weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It encompasses both global warming driven by human emissions of greenhouse gases and the resulting large-scale shifts in weather patterns. While climate change is a natural phenomenon, human activities, particularly since the Industrial Revolution, have accelerated its pace and intensity
Epcon is One of the World's leading Manufacturing Companies.EpconLP
Epcon is One of the World's leading Manufacturing Companies. With over 4000 installations worldwide, EPCON has been pioneering new techniques since 1977 that have become industry standards now. Founded in 1977, Epcon has grown from a one-man operation to a global leader in developing and manufacturing innovative air pollution control technology and industrial heating equipment.
Evolving Lifecycles with High Resolution Site Characterization (HRSC) and 3-D...Joshua Orris
The incorporation of a 3DCSM and completion of HRSC provided a tool for enhanced, data-driven, decisions to support a change in remediation closure strategies. Currently, an approved pilot study has been obtained to shut-down the remediation systems (ISCO, P&T) and conduct a hydraulic study under non-pumping conditions. A separate micro-biological bench scale treatability study was competed that yielded positive results for an emerging innovative technology. As a result, a field pilot study has commenced with results expected in nine-twelve months. With the results of the hydraulic study, field pilot studies and an updated risk assessment leading site monitoring optimization cost lifecycle savings upwards of $15MM towards an alternatively evolved best available technology remediation closure strategy.
Microbial characterisation and identification, and potability of River Kuywa ...Open Access Research Paper
Water contamination is one of the major causes of water borne diseases worldwide. In Kenya, approximately 43% of people lack access to potable water due to human contamination. River Kuywa water is currently experiencing contamination due to human activities. Its water is widely used for domestic, agricultural, industrial and recreational purposes. This study aimed at characterizing bacteria and fungi in river Kuywa water. Water samples were randomly collected from four sites of the river: site A (Matisi), site B (Ngwelo), site C (Nzoia water pump) and site D (Chalicha), during the dry season (January-March 2018) and wet season (April-July 2018) and were transported to Maseno University Microbiology and plant pathology laboratory for analysis. The characterization and identification of bacteria and fungi were carried out using standard microbiological techniques. Nine bacterial genera and three fungi were identified from Kuywa river water. Clostridium spp., Staphylococcus spp., Enterobacter spp., Streptococcus spp., E. coli, Klebsiella spp., Shigella spp., Proteus spp. and Salmonella spp. Fungi were Fusarium oxysporum, Aspergillus flavus complex and Penicillium species. Wet season recorded highest bacterial and fungal counts (6.61-7.66 and 3.83-6.75cfu/ml) respectively. The results indicated that the river Kuywa water is polluted and therefore unsafe for human consumption before treatment. It is therefore recommended that the communities to ensure that they boil water especially for drinking.
Recycling and Disposal on SWM Raymond Einyu pptxRayLetai1
Increasing urbanization, rural–urban migration, rising standards of living, and rapid development associated with population growth have resulted in increased solid waste generation by industrial, domestic and other activities in Nairobi City. It has been noted in other contexts too that increasing population, changing consumption patterns, economic development, changing income, urbanization and industrialization all contribute to the increased generation of waste.
With the increasing urban population in Kenya, which is estimated to be growing at a rate higher than that of the country’s general population, waste generation and management is already a major challenge. The industrialization and urbanization process in the country, dominated by one major city – Nairobi, which has around four times the population of the next largest urban centre (Mombasa) – has witnessed an exponential increase in the generation of solid waste. It is projected that by 2030, about 50 per cent of the Kenyan population will be urban.
Aim:
A healthy, safe, secure and sustainable solid waste management system fit for a world – class city.
Improve and protect the public health of Nairobi residents and visitors.
Ecological health, diversity and productivity and maximize resource recovery through the participatory approach.
Goals:
Build awareness and capacity for source separation as essential components of sustainable waste management.
Build new environmentally sound infrastructure and systems for safe disposal of residual waste and replacing current dumpsites which should be commissioned.
Current solid waste management situation:
The status.
Solid waste generation rate is at 2240 tones / day
collection efficiently is at about 50%.
Actors i.e. city authorities, CBO’s , private firms and self-disposal
Current SWM Situation in Nairobi City:
Solid waste generation – collection – dumping
Good Practices:
• Separation – recycling – marketing.
• Open dumpsite dandora dump site through public education on source separation of waste, of which the situation can be reversed.
• Nairobi is one of the C40 cities in this respect , various actors in the solid waste management space have adopted a variety of technologies to reduce short lived climate pollutants including source separation , recycling , marketing of the recycled products.
• Through the network, it should expect to benefit from expertise of the different actors in the network in terms of applicable technologies and practices in reducing the short-lived climate pollutants.
Good practices:
Despite the dismal collection of solid waste in Nairobi city, there are practices and activities of informal actors (CBOs, CBO-SACCOs and yard shop operators) and other formal industrial actors on solid waste collection, recycling and waste reduction.
Practices and activities of these actor groups are viewed as innovations with the potential to change the way solid waste is handled.
CHALLENGES:
• Resource Allocation.
Kinetic studies on malachite green dye adsorption from aqueous solutions by A...Open Access Research Paper
Water polluted by dyestuffs compounds is a global threat to health and the environment; accordingly, we prepared a green novel sorbent chemical and Physical system from an algae, chitosan and chitosan nanoparticle and impregnated with algae with chitosan nanocomposite for the sorption of Malachite green dye from water. The algae with chitosan nanocomposite by a simple method and used as a recyclable and effective adsorbent for the removal of malachite green dye from aqueous solutions. Algae, chitosan, chitosan nanoparticle and algae with chitosan nanocomposite were characterized using different physicochemical methods. The functional groups and chemical compounds found in algae, chitosan, chitosan algae, chitosan nanoparticle, and chitosan nanoparticle with algae were identified using FTIR, SEM, and TGADTA/DTG techniques. The optimal adsorption conditions, different dosages, pH and Temperature the amount of algae with chitosan nanocomposite were determined. At optimized conditions and the batch equilibrium studies more than 99% of the dye was removed. The adsorption process data matched well kinetics showed that the reaction order for dye varied with pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order. Furthermore, the maximum adsorption capacity of the algae with chitosan nanocomposite toward malachite green dye reached as high as 15.5mg/g, respectively. Finally, multiple times reusing of algae with chitosan nanocomposite and removing dye from a real wastewater has made it a promising and attractive option for further practical applications.
Improving the viability of probiotics by encapsulation methods for developmen...Open Access Research Paper
The popularity of functional foods among scientists and common people has been increasing day by day. Awareness and modernization make the consumer think better regarding food and nutrition. Now a day’s individual knows very well about the relation between food consumption and disease prevalence. Humans have a diversity of microbes in the gut that together form the gut microflora. Probiotics are the health-promoting live microbial cells improve host health through gut and brain connection and fighting against harmful bacteria. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus are the two bacterial genera which are considered to be probiotic. These good bacteria are facing challenges of viability. There are so many factors such as sensitivity to heat, pH, acidity, osmotic effect, mechanical shear, chemical components, freezing and storage time as well which affects the viability of probiotics in the dairy food matrix as well as in the gut. Multiple efforts have been done in the past and ongoing in present for these beneficial microbial population stability until their destination in the gut. One of a useful technique known as microencapsulation makes the probiotic effective in the diversified conditions and maintain these microbe’s community to the optimum level for achieving targeted benefits. Dairy products are found to be an ideal vehicle for probiotic incorporation. It has been seen that the encapsulated microbial cells show higher viability than the free cells in different processing and storage conditions as well as against bile salts in the gut. They make the food functional when incorporated, without affecting the product sensory characteristics.
2. T.T. Gule, B. Lemma and B.T. Hailu Scientific African 21 (2023) e01744
urbanization and population increase present significant challenges that have had a significant impact on the accessibility of
safe and clean water [1]. Water pollution from sewerage and agrochemicals is still a big issue in developing countries, where
90% of effluent is still discharged directly into waterways and lakes without any treatment [2,3]. Results from a study by
[4] showed that the concentrations of some heavy metal and physicochemical properties were slightly impaired as a result
of contamination from waste discharged from nearby beverage industries. In addition to feacal coliform concentrations in
waterbodies urban sprawl causes increased stormwater runoff. This is due to the fact that impervious cover prevents rain
from penetrating the soil; as a result, runoff is created and eventually gathers numerous pollutants and chemicals before
entering rivers, lakes, and streams within the basin [5]. Therefore, in many developing nations, water quality and the danger
of contracting waterborne infections are major public health problems. Hepatitis, typhoid fever, gastroenteritis, and other
less serious infections are among the illnesses and diseases that can be acquired from coming into contact with water that
has high fecal coliform counts [6]. Over a billion people, the majority of whom live in developing countries are estimated to
lack access to a dependable source of safe water [7]. Also, studies have revealed that consuming contaminated water results
in the deaths of over 5 million individuals, the majority of whom are also from underdeveloped nations [1].
The majority of African countries have emphasized ensuring access to adequate and high-quality water in order to
achieve Sustainable Development Goal 6. The goal 6 is aimed at ensuring availability and sustainable management of water
and sanitation for all. The Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG), adopted by the United Nations General Assembly for the
period 2015–2030, as a follow-up to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for the period 2000–2015, include explicit
targets regarding the improvement of water quality worldwide and the increase in water-use efficiency and reduction in
water scarcity [8,9]. Safe drinking water can be defined as drinking water from an improved source which is located on the
premises, available when needed and free from contamination [10,11]. Ethiopia is still listed as one of the countries with
the least access to basic water services and sanitary facilities, as well as the highest incidence of water-borne diseases. For
instance only 6.3% of households have access to better sanitary facilities, while 66% of households have access to safe and
clean drinking water [12,13]. Ethiopia has 62.7% of its people relying on unimproved water sources [7]. The most common
and ubiquitous problem is the direct or indirect impairment of drinking water by industrial waste, other pollutants, or hu-
man or animal excrement. Acute and long-term impacts might result from microbial and chemical pollutants [14]. Research
by [15] also indicates that the presence of heavy metals such as lead, cadmium and chromium that come with effluents
from adjacent anthropogenic activities can result in significant contamination of surface water. Bacterial pollution is another
significant health risk associated with drinking contaminated water. This contamination may occur at the source, during
distribution, transportation, or owing to household handling, hygiene and sanitation practices [16]. Presence of bacteria no-
tably E. coli in water is a sign of pathogenic/faecal contamination [17]. There remains a pressing need for systematic water
quality monitoring strategies to assess drinking water safety and to track progress towards the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDG). Hence, determining the quality of drinking water is crucial to determining its safety.
According to Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority (AAWSA), the city’s primary water utility organization, city res-
idents obtain domestic water from a variety of sources. These sources include bottled water, boreholes, tap connections, and
streams. Addis Ababa’s water resources are severely polluted as a result of rapid population increase, unchecked urbaniza-
tion, industrialization, and poor waste management methods, endangering human health and aquatic ecosystem function as
a whole. All types of waste released in the city are simply dumped into the rivers. Municipal solid and liquid wastes, toilet,
and open urination are the main sources of trash dumped into rivers and riverbanks. Additional sources of garbage include
construction sites, gas stations, garage operations, and densely populated areas. Addis Ababa is also host to more than 65%
of the country’s enterprises, and more than 90% of those businesses discharge untreated waste directly into the adjacent
Akaki River [18]. Each of them causes the spread of water-borne infections and lowers overall quality of life [19]. Therefore,
the Akaki river in particular has been a source of environmental contamination in the Addis Ababa waterways [20]. The
discharge of untreated pollutants to water can be a serious threat to access and quality of water [21]. Behavioral changes
are therefore required to ensure the attainment of water and sanitation goals by 2030.
Despite having sewer networks, Addis Ababa only has them in 7.5% of its built-up zones, which is a very tiny percentage.
Septic tanks are used in both residential and commercial spaces because only a portion of the city’s older neighborhoods
are connected to the municipal sewer system [22]. Most of the city’s roadside drains have a strong sewage odor, and most
waterways near the major industrial zones are heavily polluted. The city authority of Addis Ababa is currently making efforts
to manage and treat the river, including the recently completed massive river and riverbank development project [18]. But
nonetheless, these initiatives are very limited and do not fully address the city’s problem with water contamination. Water
treatment is usually a complex undertaking, often bound to fail if the objectives remain unclear, the raw water properties
not seriously examined and the treatment processes not adequately selected and applied. The removal or inactivation of
these pathogenic organisms is the primary target of any water treatment. Slow sand filtration and chlorination are thus the
two most widely used surface water treatment processes, which are sensitive and efficient enough to improve particularly
the microbiological water quality [23]. However with rapid urbanization, development and industrialization, sources of con-
tamination continue to diversify. Hence researchers are trying to overcome the resistance of the resistant pathogenic strains
from pharmaceuticals and agricultural input parameters by using nanotechnology [24]. However the surface water treatment
processes in the studied reservoirs still utilize the conventional slow sand filtration and chlorination processes.
The objective of this study was therefore to assess the water quality status of drinking water in Addis Ababa city, Ethiopia.
Although studies assessing the water quality have been done before, most of the them just focus on the water from the
lake and other points especially after treatment are ignored. However, contamination can happen at the water treatment
2
3. T.T. Gule, B. Lemma and B.T. Hailu Scientific African 21 (2023) e01744
Fig. 1. Map of the study area showing the water resources of Addis Ababa and the sampling sites circled in red.
plant due to unsuitable infrastructure as well as during the distribution into the taps where residents fetch their water
from. This study considered water samples from the lake, treatment plant as well as from the distribution taps, hence its
novelty. Water availability is not a matter of quantity alone; water quality can, in equal measure, determine how much is
available for particular uses. Degraded urban water resources have consequences for ecosystems, health, and water-reliant
livelihoods. This study is therefore important in ensuring water security in urban areas under escalating pressure of urban
expansion all around the globe. In an effort to ensure that Sustainable Development Goal 6 is met, this research will be
helpful in investigating access to adequate drinkable water and better sanitary facilities. This work contributes to target 6.1
of achieving universal and equitable access to safe and affordable water for all and target 6.3 of improving water quality by
reducing pollution, eliminating dumping release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated
wastewater and sustainably increasing recycling and safe water reuse globally.
Methodology
Study area
This study was carried out in Addis Ababa city (Fig. 1) which is found in the central highlands of Ethiopia [25] and
covers an area of 540 km2. This city is divided into 10 administrative sub-cities. The boundaries of the watersheds for the
Awash and Abay rivers constitute the northern border of Addis Ababa, which is situated in the upper Awash Basin. Based
on the types of water resources and geographic locations, the city’s water supply sources can be divided into four groups.
The Gefersa Dam I, II, and III clusters, the Legedadi surface water subsystem, which consists of the Legedadi and Dire Dams,
the Akaki groundwater system, and the spring water sources at the base of Entoto Mountain constitute these clusters [26].
Field sampling procedure
Primary data on water quality was obtained from Legedadie and Gefersa Reservoirs. Parameters of interest included
those measured in the field, such as, electrical conductivity (EC), pH, temperature, and dissolved oxygen (DO). DO, water
temperature, pH, Oxygen, and conductivity we measured in situ using a Multimeter probe (model HQ40d, Germany) at all
sampling sites. Turbidity was estimated using a turbidity meter (T100 Oakaton, Singapore). This was done in four points of
each reservoir, raw water from the dam, clarified water, filtered water and treated water.
Moreover, water samples were taken from the Gefersa and Legedadie reservoirs in 2 liter plastic bottles under aseptic
conditions in order to prevent contamination of the water with other atmospheric bacteria. 12 water samples were collected
in each reservoir, amounting to a total of 24 water samples. The water source information, time, and date of collection were
written on the sample bottles’ caps, and they were then carried in a cooler box to the Addis Ababa University Limnology
3
4. T.T. Gule, B. Lemma and B.T. Hailu Scientific African 21 (2023) e01744
lab for analysis where they were stored in the fridge below 4 °C. The water samples were analyzed within three days of
collection from the field.
Microbiological analysis of water samples
The total coliform counts were determined using the conventional plate count method. Using distilled water, each water
sample was successively (10 folds) diluted. The diluted samples were added to standard plate count agar, MacConkey agar,
and Eosin Methylene Blue Agar and stirred with sterile pipette, to ensure that the inoculum was evenly distributed through-
out the agar. After being given time to set, the plates were put in an incubator for 24 h at 37 °C. A change in color to red
after the incubation time was regarded as proof of the presence of coliforms [27,28]. Deionized water served as the control
in each test batch. Following 48 h of incubation, the plates were examined for microbial growth, and the colonies that had
grown on the common plate count agar subsequently recorded. To measure faecal and total coliforms, the most probable
number approach was applied [29]. The established colonies on the various selective media were examined, sub-cultured
on new nutrient agar plates, and then incubated. Colonies were placed on an agar slant and kept at 44° for incubation. E.
coli was detected using the multiple tube fermentation method, where the presence of blue fluorescence signifies a positive
reaction for E. coli. After counting the generated colonies, the results were represented as CFU/ml.
Chemical analysis of water samples
The water samples were also evaluated in the laboratory for ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, total alkalinity, total phosphorus
(TP), total dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solids (TSS), and soluble reactive Silica (SRSi). These parameters were
chosen because they are markers of the quality of drinking water, have been applied to relevant studies, and are available
in the secondary data from AAWSA. The samples used for nutrient assays were filtered using glass fiber filters (What man
GF/F) within 2 to 8 h, with the exception of total phosphorus (TP), which was quantified using an untreated water sample.
The total alkalinity was evaluated using the titration method. The total dissolved solids were determined by heating a pre-
filtered sample to a dry state and determining the weight of the dried residue per liter of sample. The water sample was
run through a pre-weighed filter to calculate TSS. Once there was no longer any weight change in the filter, the leftover
residue was dried in an oven at 103–105 °C. The TSS is represented by the filter’s weight [30]. The nitrate content of the
water samples was determined using the sodium salicylate technique [30,31]. Solvable reactive silica was measured using the
molybdosilicate technique [32,30]. Following persulfate digestion, total phosphorus was measured using a spectrophotometer
and an ascorbic acid method [33].
Data analysis
Data processing and analysis were performed using IBM SPSS software, version 23. The WHO and Ethiopian government
standard guidelines were compared to the mean values of the investigated physicochemical parameters and bacterial counts,
which were then presented as tables. Using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and the Levene test, respectively, the normality of
the data and homogeneity of variance for dependent variables within sampling sites were examined. The data was found to
be uniform and normally distributed. As a result, one-way ANOVA was carried out to establish differences in physicochemi-
cal sample means and to show significant differences in the measured parameters among the different sampling sites. Based
on the risk classification for thermotolerant coliforms, water samples were divided into various risk categories [34]. In every
instance, a p-value of 0.05 and a 95% confidence range were used to determine statistical significance. With the use of IBM
SPSS software, spearman "r" correlation tests were carried out to ascertain the effect of physicochemical variables on the
variation in microbial densities between the two reservoirs.
Water quality index
Using the arithmetic water quality index, the state of the water quality was assessed based on how appropriate the
water is for domestic consumption [35]. Hence, 15 parameters which include ammonia, SRP, total phosphorus, nitrate, silica,
nitrite, total dissolved solids, total alkalinity, pH, turbidity, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, temperature, total coliform, and
E. coli were taken into account in the current study to calculate the WQI. The water sample’s WQI was calculated in three
steps: (1) Each chemical characteristic was given a weight (wi) depending on how it was thought to affect primary health
and how important it was overall to the water’s quality for drinking, and the WHO limit; (2) Computing the unit weight
(Wi) of each parameter using the equation below:
Wi=k/si, where k = 1/(1/si)
3) A quality rating scale (qi) for each parameter was computed by dividing the concentration in each water sample by
its respective standard according to the guidelines laid down by WHO and then, the result was multiplied by 100 as shown
in the equation below: qi=(vi/si) ∗ 100, where vi is the parameter value taken on ground
Finally, for computing the WQI, the unit weight is multiplied by the quality rating scale (qi). The WQI values were
classified into different categories according to [36] (Table 1).
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5. T.T. Gule, B. Lemma and B.T. Hailu Scientific African 21 (2023) e01744
Table 1
Water quality scale for different in-
dices.
Water Quality WQI
Excellent 50
Good 50–100
Poor/Fair 100–200
Very Poor/Marginal 200–300
Unsuitable/Poor 300
Results and discussions
Bacteriological quality of the water samples
All sampling sites revealed total coliform bacteria, ranging from 3000 to 5000 CFU/100 mL with an average of 4000
CFU/100 mL. This shows that the water samples at these sites are of poor quality and can be harmful to people’s health. This
is in accordance with studies by [37–39], who found the waters of Nkolafamba, Cameroon, Portugal, and Nigeria respectively
to have a high bacterial load higher than the standard bacterial concentration level set by the World Health Organization
(WHO). A high total coliform count may not necessarily indicate the presence of pathogenic bacteria in the water, but
it does suggest improper chlorination, which suggests that the water is polluted with pathogenic bacteria. Treated water
from both reservoirs, and filtered water from Legedadie appeared free of contamination and the faecal coliform count was
zero which might be attributed to the water treatment process. Total coliform levels showed faecal and environmental
contaminations, which were most likely brought on by diffuse runoff pollution, poor catchment land management, human
activities and settlements, household sewage, livestock manure, and open defecation. The Escherichia coli count was between
20 and 3000 CFU/100 mL, with 1400 CFU/100 mL being the average. It is clear from the findings above that the bacterial
load is particularly concerning because both the raw water and the clarified water samples had very high coliform units for
E. coli. It can therefore be concluded that the water is not microbiologically safe for consumption without further treatment.
For filtered and treated water from both reservoirs, E. coli count was zero indicating that there is no evidence of recent
fecal contamination. Regarding the water sources, the highest value of total coliform counts and fecal coliforms counts were
recorded in the water samples collected directly from the reservoirs. The higher level of contamination is likely due to poor
protection and exposure to contamination by wastes from humans, animals, and the surrounding environment.
Physicochemical properties of the drinking water
Temperature varied between 17.6 °C to 19.6 °C. Microorganisms’ ability to grow and survive can be directly impacted
by temperature. It affects how effectively coagulants and disinfection chemicals function as well as the biological features
of the water [40]. In this research, the turbidity of all water samples was beyond the drinking water standards, with Leg-
edadie water samples recording very high turbidity values. According to research, turbidity of more than 1 NTU affects the
effectiveness of disinfection in water treatment plants [41]. Legedadie’s water samples had the greatest average turbidity
suggesting that it is dangerous to drink since the water is likely subjected to nearby polluting activities. However, all water
samples from Gefersa treatment plant and taps had an acceptable value of turbidity whilst raw water was above the stip-
ulated standard. High turbidity can be associated with excess amounts of suspended organic matter and microorganisms
such as bacteria. It could also be as a result of water coming into contact with surface runoffs [42]. Therefore, use of highly
turbid water can be a health risk since excessive turbidity stimulates growth of pathogenic bacteria and can protect them
from the effects of disinfectants [43,1]]. The pH range of water samples taken from the Legedadie reservoir was within WHO
and Ethiopian drinking water requirements, at 7.57 to 7.75. However for Gefersa, pH values of samples from clarified water,
filtered water and treated water were beyond the drinking water standards. This is an indication of higher alkalinity from
addition of lime and high doses of chlorine during treatment [44]. According to WHO water quality guidelines, electrical
conductivity below 400 μ/cm is deemed safe for human consumption, whereas electrical conductivity above 1500 μ/cm
may cause iron structures to corrode (WHO, 2017). Electrical conductivity ranged from 102 to 224 μ/cm which is within
the acceptable standards. This is in accordance with the study by [39] which reported that EC levels were within the max-
imal permissible limit of the WHO and in variance with the study by [45], which reported EC levels that exceeded WHO
and NSDWQ standard values. The dissolution of CO2 in water leads to alkalinity in natural waterways. Consequently cre-
ated carbonates and bicarbonates are dissociated to produce hydroxyl ions. Total alkalinity in the samples under analysis
ranged from 15 to 120 mg/L, which is desirable for household uses. The alkalinity value is essential to evaluate the dose of
disinfection in water treatment practices and defluoridation processes [41].
The water samples’ nitrate amounts ranged between 0.315 and 0.388 mg/L, which is substantially lower than the 50 mg/l
maximum suggested for drinking water [10]. The mean values of nitrite and ammonia were lower in the treated water
samples compared to values in other samples, which could indicate that at least the physical water purification system
was properly working [13]. This is also less than the maximum values of 10.8 mg/l and 12.9 mg/l from other Ethiopian
5
6. T.T. Gule, B. Lemma and B.T. Hailu Scientific African 21 (2023) e01744
Table 2
Physicochemical results for water samples of Legedadie and Gefersa Reservoirs and the WHO and Ethiopian government water quality stan-
dards.
Parameters Units Raw water
Clarified
water Filtered water Treated water
WHO
standard[48]
Ethiopian
standard [49]
Ammonia mg/l
Gefersa 0.085 0.036 0.044 0.019 1.5 1.5
Legedadie 0.223 0.048 0.042 0.037
Nitrate mg/l
Gefersa 0.382 0.345 0.388 0.338 50 50
Legedadie 0.370 0.315 0.388 0.365
Nitrite mg/l
Gefersa 0.157 0.199 0.247 0.028 3 3
Legedadie 0.133 0.033 0.031 0.026
SRP mg/l
Gefersa 3.754 1.342 3.067 2.198 120 –
Legedadie 0.191 0.217 0.226 0.203
Silica mg/l
Gefersa 111.77 131.77 132.58 72.2 25 –
Legedadie 15.1 13.6 14.15 8.85
TSS mg/l
Gerfesa 0.031 0.0091 0.005 0.002 50 50
Legedadie 0.0067 0.0073 0.0064 0.0068
Total
alkalinity
mg/l
Gefersa 15 50 45 120 500 200
Legedadie 45 45 45 60
TP mg/l
Gefersa 5.007 4.001 5.725 5.071 0.5 0.5
Legedadie 0.502 0.597 0.602 0.575
pH
Gefersa 7.97 8.53 8.93 9.06 6.5–8 6.5–8.5
Legedadie 7.57 7.75 7.61 7.73
Electrical
conductivity
μS/cm
Gefersa 102.6 221.7 223 224.7 400 1000
Legedadie 103.2 104.1 107.6 104.4
Turbidity NTU
Gefersa 16.68 2.79 2.68 3.17 5 5
Legedadie 630 578 456 330
Temperature °C
Gefersa 19.5 17.77 17.63 18.53 12–25 –
Legedadie 18.87 18.87 18.3 19.1
DO mg/l
Gefersa 6.35 3.37 5.15 6.12 5 5
Legedadie 5.46 5.67 6.1 5.47
source waters of Ziway town [46] and Bahir Dar town [47], respectively. The total phosphorus concentrations were above
the 0.5 mg/L stipulated standards by WHO and Ethiopian government, ranging from 0.502 to 5.7 mg/L. Table 2 shows the
results of the physicochemical parameters analysis.
Comparison of physicochemical parameters within the reservoirs
One way ANOVA test results indicated that there was no statistical difference between the two reservoirs for ammonia,
nitrate concentration, TSS, total alkalinity, DO and temperature. However, significant differences were noted for SRP, total
phosphorus, silica, nitrite, pH, turbidity and conductivity (Table 3).
Risk levels of drinking water with reference to bacteriological contamination
The risk level of the water was then determined according to [48] risk levels categories in terms of E. coli as shown
below:
Risk level In conformity Low risk Intermediate risk High risk Very high risk
No. of colonies 0 1–10 10–100 100–1000 1000
In the study, filtered and treated water samples were free of E. coli hence in conformity with safe water requirements.
Clarified water from Gefersa reservoir was in intermediate risk category whilst clarified water from Legedadie fell in the
high risk category. Raw water samples were found to be in the very high risk category as shown in Table 4.
6
7. T.T. Gule, B. Lemma and B.T. Hailu Scientific African 21 (2023) e01744
Table 3
One way Anova for the means of physiochemi-
cal parameters within the different reservoirs.
Parameters F p-value
Ammonia 0.768433 0.414417
SRP 20.73448 0.003877∗
TP 151.0466 1.77E-05∗
Nitrate 0.029969 0.868252
Silica 48.71709 0.00043∗
Nitrite 19.54006 0.004469∗
TSS 0.57268 0.477849
Total Alkalinity 0.150769 0.711205
pH 14.79167 0.008499∗
Turbidity 53.87511 0.000327∗
Conductivity 8.544427 0.026525∗
DO 0.379413 0.560543
Temperature 0.857214 0.39024
Table 4
Risk levels of drinking water with reference to E. coli contamination.
Categories Gefersa Risk category Legedadie Risk category
Raw 2330 Very high risk 3000 Very high risk
Clarified 20 Intermediate risk 250 High risk
Filtered 0 In conformity 0 In conformity
Treated 0 In conformity 0 In conformity
Table 5
Correlations between physicochemical parameters and bacterial density.
Microbiological variables
Physicochemical variables total coliforms faecal coliforms E. coli
Ammonia 0.786∗
0.708∗
0.748∗
SRP −0.429 −0.024 −0.19
Total phosphorus −0.571 −0.22 −0.419
Nitrate 0.108 0 −0.166
Silica −0.214 0.342 0.038
Nitrite −0.405 0.146 −0.051
Total soluble solids 0.357 0.586 0.621
Total Alkalinity 0.685 −0.585 −0.568
pH −0.714∗
−0.22 −0.381
Turbidity 0.738∗
0.22 0.495
Conductivity −0.69 −0.634 −0.786∗
Dissolved oxygen −0.048 −0.22 0.013
Temperature 0.180 0.233 0.472
Total coliform 1 0.634 0.736∗
E. coli 0.736∗
0.936∗∗
1
faecal coliform 0.634 1 0.936∗∗
∗
Correlation is significant at 0.05 level,.
∗∗
Correlation is significant at 0.01 level.
Assessment of the impact of physicochemical parameters on the variation of microbial densities
The Spearman’s r correlation test was used to correlate the densities of the isolated bacteria with physicochemical
characteristics. It turns out that parameters like ammonia and turbidity and the densities of total coliforms have very sig-
nificant (p 0.05) positive correlations. On the other side, there were notable negative relationships between pH and total
coliform count. The same observation was obtained between the density of E. coli and the electrical conductivity. Significant
(p0.05) and positive correlations were recorded on the one hand between fecal coliforms, E. coli content and ammonia
concentration (Table 5).
Water quality index results
The estimated WQI values in this investigation fell within the unsuitable/poor water category (Table 1). This is in cor-
relation to studies by [4] and [50] who also found that anthropogenic land uses such as industries and agriculture lower
the water quality index of the Ajali River in Enugu, Nigeria and Lake Tinishu Abaya Water, Ethiopia respectively. Total phos-
phorus, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, E. coli, silica, pH, and ammonia factors had a greater impact on the weighted arithmetic
7
8. T.T. Gule, B. Lemma and B.T. Hailu Scientific African 21 (2023) e01744
Table 6
Calculated water quality index values.
Parameters Units si 1/si Unit weight (wi) Water quality ratings (qi) Water quality index (WQI)
Gefersa Legedadie Gefersa Legedadie
Ammonia mg/l 1.5 0.67 0.182 1.267 2.467 0.23 0.448
SRP mg/l 120 0.008 0.002 1.832 0.169 0.004 0.0004
TP mg/l 0.5 2.00 0.545 1014.2 115 553.059 62.711
Nitrate mg/l 50 0.02 0.005 0.676 0.73 0.004 0.004
Silica mg/l 25 0.04 0.011 288.8 35.4 3.15 0.386
Nitrite mg/l 3 0.33 0.091 9.333 0.867 0.848 0.079
TSS mg/l 50 0.02 0.005 0.004 0.014 2.18E-05 7.42E-05
Total Alkalinity mg/l 500 0.002 0.001 24 12 0.013 0.007
pH 8 0.125 0.034 113.25 96.625 3.860 3.293
Turbidity NTU 5 0.2 0.055 63 6600 3.457 359.908
Conductivity μS/cm 400 0.003 0.001 56.168 26.1 0.038 0.018
DO mg/l 5 0.20 0.055 122.4 109.4 6.675 5.966
Temperature °C 25 0.04 0.011 74.12 76.4 0.808 0.833
Total coliform CFU 10,000 0 0 30 31.5 0.001 0.001
E. coli CFU 100 0.01 0.003 0 0 0.0009 0.0009
572.148 433.655
water quality index outcomes than other quality measures (Table 6). Thus, the analysis showed that both lakes’ surface
water requires some sort of treatment before use and that it is crucial to keep it free from the dangers of contamination.
Where, si=Standard value of i parameter [51]
k = 1/(1/si) qi=(vi/si) ∗ 100 vi= Parameter value taken on ground
Conclusions and recommendations
This study aimed to evaluate the water quality status of Addis Ababa drinking water by assessing the physicochemical
and microbiological water quality parameters. Standard methods from American Public Health Association were followed.
Water quality parameters such as turbidity, total phosphorus, dissolved oxygen and pH were found to be above the recom-
mended limits by WHO and Ethiopian standards. Other parameters such as nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, total soluble solids,
total alkalinity, pH, electrical conductivity and temperature were discovered to be within the WHO permitted range. The
samples were found to contain a high bacterial load, and consequently the WQI indicated that the water falls into the poor/
unsuitable category. From the findings of this research we can conclude that the supply networks and the sources both
contribute to the decline in water quality. Effective sewage disposal, drainage, and water treatment with improved nano
technologies, UV radiation or ozone are essential for supplying the people of Addis Ababa with safe drinking water. Public
health officials should frequently collect water samples from distribution taps as well so to assess the quality of the water
and educate the general public about water safety.
Total coliforms were found at every sampling location, which is a sign that Addis Ababa’s microbiological drinking water
quality does not meet national and International requirements. This work greatly contributes to the African Union Agenda
2063 because improving the water quality, public health is promoted through a reduction in waterborne diseases. Water
quality analysis can also inform policymakers and provide data for decision making related to infrastructure development
and environmental management. Additionally, improving water quality in urban areas is an important pillar for achiev-
ing sustainable development in Africa and tracking progress towards achievement of sustainable goal 6 designed to ensure
access to safe drinking water and sanitation to all by the year 2030. With the high levels of coliform bacteria present,
drinking water contamination in Addis Ababa city is clearly a threat to the general public’s health. The local administration,
health, and water departments should act right once to stop waste disposal and human activity around the water source
and reservoirs. They should also regularly inspect and maintain the distribution lines. Also, improving public awareness of
environmental sanitation and sanitary behaviors is crucial for lowering the burdens associated with water-related illnesses
on the community.
The topic of water quality is wide and encompasses many variables. This study was limited in that it concentrated on a
few particular parameters that are important in determining the quality of drinking water according to WHO guidelines. It
is recommended that further research should consider additional water quality parameters such as heavy metals parameters
like mercury, fluoride, calcium and sulfate and those in the area of pesticides, herbicides and related agricultural inputs. Also
measuring total metal content by using conventional analytical techniques may not necessarily provide a true indication of
the actual toxicity of these metals due to the speciation of heavy metal ions which ultimately determines their bioavailability
and toxicity [24,52]. We therefore recommend the use of electroanalytical techniques for evaluating and estimating the water
quality and determining the heavy metals contamination in the surface water. Studies such as those by [52] have used such
methods to assess the degree of pollution and implicitly the surface water quality, depending on the variation of climatic
parameters, and the impact of anthropogenic and industrial activity in the studied area. Its use is advantageous due to high
sensitivity, reduction in solvent and sample consumption, high-speed analysis, low operating cost and high scan rate in all
8
9. T.T. Gule, B. Lemma and B.T. Hailu Scientific African 21 (2023) e01744
cases [53,24]. Turbid and colored solutions, which are a problem with other methods, can also be easily analyzed with this
method and only small volumes of samples are necessary. The short analysis time also makes this technique very attractive
for routine determination of the analytes in different samples [53].
Data availability statement
All relevant data has been included in the manuscript, and if more data is required it will be made available on request.
Funding
This research was funded by the World Bank Group through the African centre of Excellence for Water Management,
Addis Ababa University, and Grant No. GSR/0140/13.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors of this paper declare that there is no conflict of interest and that the funding body had no influence on the
results and views presented in this paper.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Thandile T. Gule: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization,
Writing – original draft, Writing – review editing. Brook Lemma: Conceptualization, Resources, Supervision, Writing –
review editing. Binyam Tesfaw Hailu: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – review editing.
Acknowledgments
This project was funded by World Bank under the Africa Center of Excellence for Water Management (ACEWM). We
acknowledge the Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority (AAWSA) for their assistance in data collection.
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