This study assessed factors influencing household water quality in Tamale, Ghana. Water samples were collected from 250 households and tested for contaminants. The results showed that 83% of samples tested positive for E. coli, and the majority had feacal coliform bacteria present. Water source, distance to source, and water storage practices were found to impact household water quality. Those fetching water from outside sources like public standpipes were less likely to have quality water compared to those with in-home sources. On-site water treatment is needed to ensure water safety for domestic use in Tamale.
This document summarizes a student's health risk assessment of using rainwater for toilet flushing. The student assessed potential health risks by employing a Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment. The literature review found mixed results on the safety of consuming rainwater, with some studies finding rainwater safe and others finding potential pathogens. The student conducted their own designed experiment and theoretical modeling study to estimate microbial risks. Their results showed the risk of infection from inhaling Campylobacter and Salmonella after flushing a toilet supplied with rainwater was very low.
Drinking Water Quality and Sanitation Issues: A Survey of a Semi-Urban Settin...IJRES Journal
An assessment on the drinking water quality from major source (borehole) and household in a semi-urban setting in Nigeria was carried out. Structured questionnaire was administered to randomly selected households in seven zones of the municipality to determine the common method of collection and transportation, storage, and sanitation practices. Water samples collected were subjected to laboratory analyses for physico-chemical and microbial properties. The result of the physico-chemical analysis when compared against the World Health Organization (WHO) and Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) drinking water quality benchmark revealed that the water samples were within standards for consumable water except for the presence of feacal contamination. The result revealed that before water can be totally considered safe for drinking, further treatment is required at the household level due to fecal contamination, and water safety concerns are also highlighted. The result translates to the fact that compliance assessment with standards and impact assessment studies in determining the fate of pollutants is necessary at all levels.
Save water and safe water evaluation of design and storage period on water qu...Alexander Decker
The document evaluates the design and water quality of rainwater harvesting systems installed in Chitra Topi, AJK. It finds that non-painted galvanized iron rooftops provide high quality rainwater, while painted roofs lead to unsafe lead levels. Water quality declines with storage time due to increased microbial activity in summer months. Turbidity exceeds standards in 96% of samples year-round. Total hardness and iron levels meet standards. The study concludes rainwater harvesting can improve access if systems use appropriate designs and management practices.
Sanitation Mapping of Groundwater Contamination in a Rural Village of IndiaKavya Prabhakar
This study analyzed groundwater samples from 50 wells in a rural village in India to assess microbial contamination. Laboratory tests found high levels of total coliform, E. coli, and other bacteria in the samples, indicating the water was microbiologically unfit for consumption. A geographic analysis using GPS and GIS mapping found that most wells were located very close to latrines (average distance of 6.44 meters), shorter than the EPA guideline of 15.24 meters. Higher bacterial counts were found in wells located closer to latrines. The study concluded that poor siting of wells near latrines was a key reason for the groundwater contamination in the village.
This document summarizes a study on microcystin levels in raw and treated municipal drinking water sources in Alberta. Microcystin is a toxin produced by some cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) that can be harmful to human health. The study analyzed water samples from 18 municipalities over 10 weeks and found microcystin present in 67% of raw water samples, with concentrations up to 14.8 μg/L in some sources. Microcystin was detected less often and at lower levels in treated water, indicating conventional treatment removes some toxin. All samples complied with Health Canada guidelines. The study recommends further sampling of rural communities to fully evaluate microcystin occurrence in municipal surface drinking water supplies.
This document summarizes a study on the socio-economic impacts of arsenic contamination in drinking water in Basti Rasul Pur, Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan. Key findings include:
1) 77% of water samples tested were found to have unsafe levels of arsenic contamination.
2) 50% of people surveyed showed symptoms of arsenicosis (arsenic poisoning) and 60% of household earnings were being spent on medical treatment.
3) Widespread illiteracy meant the population was largely unaware of the health risks of drinking contaminated water.
There is a need for sustainable solutions to provide the affected community with safe drinking water and mitigate the severe health and socioeconomic impacts of arsenic
Performance assessment of water filtration plants in pakistan - JBESInnspub Net
A study was carried out to evaluate the water quality of filtration plants installed at six different places of Cantonment Board Sialkot, Pakistan to suggest and recommend guidelines for their improvement. Water samples from six Treatment plants and their respective twelve connections (two from each treatment plants) were collected before and after treatment. In this way, total samples were collected and tested. Values of these samples before and after treatment were used for comparison with World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water standards. Thirty three parameters including physical, chemical and bacteriological were determined for each sample. The results were satisfactory both chemically and bacteriologically according to WHO guidelines for water quality of treatment plants. The results showed that the samples of water were fit, both before and after treatment plant except for water sample of treatment plant No. IV & V (Before treatment). Total and faecal coliform were found in these samples. Various causes of faecal contamination before treatment may be due to leakage of pipelines, operation at tubewells, layout of freshwater pipes parallel or beneath the sewerage pipes or channels. Disinfection of water at source is recommended to deal with the faecal contamination; otherwise there is no need of filtration plant.
Recycled Water: Wastewater Poised to Be a Significant Source of The Nation's ...larrycotcher
A report from the National Research Council suggests that treated wastewater has the potential to be a large part of the future US water supply, though using wastewater is controversial. While water recycling is already practiced in the US for less than 1% of water, increasing reuse could provide 27% of public supply by treating the 12 billion gallons of wastewater discharged daily. The report found that treated wastewater does not pose health risks and that recycling costs vary but can be less than desalination while complementing other water sources and strategies.
This document summarizes a student's health risk assessment of using rainwater for toilet flushing. The student assessed potential health risks by employing a Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment. The literature review found mixed results on the safety of consuming rainwater, with some studies finding rainwater safe and others finding potential pathogens. The student conducted their own designed experiment and theoretical modeling study to estimate microbial risks. Their results showed the risk of infection from inhaling Campylobacter and Salmonella after flushing a toilet supplied with rainwater was very low.
Drinking Water Quality and Sanitation Issues: A Survey of a Semi-Urban Settin...IJRES Journal
An assessment on the drinking water quality from major source (borehole) and household in a semi-urban setting in Nigeria was carried out. Structured questionnaire was administered to randomly selected households in seven zones of the municipality to determine the common method of collection and transportation, storage, and sanitation practices. Water samples collected were subjected to laboratory analyses for physico-chemical and microbial properties. The result of the physico-chemical analysis when compared against the World Health Organization (WHO) and Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) drinking water quality benchmark revealed that the water samples were within standards for consumable water except for the presence of feacal contamination. The result revealed that before water can be totally considered safe for drinking, further treatment is required at the household level due to fecal contamination, and water safety concerns are also highlighted. The result translates to the fact that compliance assessment with standards and impact assessment studies in determining the fate of pollutants is necessary at all levels.
Save water and safe water evaluation of design and storage period on water qu...Alexander Decker
The document evaluates the design and water quality of rainwater harvesting systems installed in Chitra Topi, AJK. It finds that non-painted galvanized iron rooftops provide high quality rainwater, while painted roofs lead to unsafe lead levels. Water quality declines with storage time due to increased microbial activity in summer months. Turbidity exceeds standards in 96% of samples year-round. Total hardness and iron levels meet standards. The study concludes rainwater harvesting can improve access if systems use appropriate designs and management practices.
Sanitation Mapping of Groundwater Contamination in a Rural Village of IndiaKavya Prabhakar
This study analyzed groundwater samples from 50 wells in a rural village in India to assess microbial contamination. Laboratory tests found high levels of total coliform, E. coli, and other bacteria in the samples, indicating the water was microbiologically unfit for consumption. A geographic analysis using GPS and GIS mapping found that most wells were located very close to latrines (average distance of 6.44 meters), shorter than the EPA guideline of 15.24 meters. Higher bacterial counts were found in wells located closer to latrines. The study concluded that poor siting of wells near latrines was a key reason for the groundwater contamination in the village.
This document summarizes a study on microcystin levels in raw and treated municipal drinking water sources in Alberta. Microcystin is a toxin produced by some cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) that can be harmful to human health. The study analyzed water samples from 18 municipalities over 10 weeks and found microcystin present in 67% of raw water samples, with concentrations up to 14.8 μg/L in some sources. Microcystin was detected less often and at lower levels in treated water, indicating conventional treatment removes some toxin. All samples complied with Health Canada guidelines. The study recommends further sampling of rural communities to fully evaluate microcystin occurrence in municipal surface drinking water supplies.
This document summarizes a study on the socio-economic impacts of arsenic contamination in drinking water in Basti Rasul Pur, Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan. Key findings include:
1) 77% of water samples tested were found to have unsafe levels of arsenic contamination.
2) 50% of people surveyed showed symptoms of arsenicosis (arsenic poisoning) and 60% of household earnings were being spent on medical treatment.
3) Widespread illiteracy meant the population was largely unaware of the health risks of drinking contaminated water.
There is a need for sustainable solutions to provide the affected community with safe drinking water and mitigate the severe health and socioeconomic impacts of arsenic
Performance assessment of water filtration plants in pakistan - JBESInnspub Net
A study was carried out to evaluate the water quality of filtration plants installed at six different places of Cantonment Board Sialkot, Pakistan to suggest and recommend guidelines for their improvement. Water samples from six Treatment plants and their respective twelve connections (two from each treatment plants) were collected before and after treatment. In this way, total samples were collected and tested. Values of these samples before and after treatment were used for comparison with World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water standards. Thirty three parameters including physical, chemical and bacteriological were determined for each sample. The results were satisfactory both chemically and bacteriologically according to WHO guidelines for water quality of treatment plants. The results showed that the samples of water were fit, both before and after treatment plant except for water sample of treatment plant No. IV & V (Before treatment). Total and faecal coliform were found in these samples. Various causes of faecal contamination before treatment may be due to leakage of pipelines, operation at tubewells, layout of freshwater pipes parallel or beneath the sewerage pipes or channels. Disinfection of water at source is recommended to deal with the faecal contamination; otherwise there is no need of filtration plant.
Recycled Water: Wastewater Poised to Be a Significant Source of The Nation's ...larrycotcher
A report from the National Research Council suggests that treated wastewater has the potential to be a large part of the future US water supply, though using wastewater is controversial. While water recycling is already practiced in the US for less than 1% of water, increasing reuse could provide 27% of public supply by treating the 12 billion gallons of wastewater discharged daily. The report found that treated wastewater does not pose health risks and that recycling costs vary but can be less than desalination while complementing other water sources and strategies.
This document provides information about monitoring benthic macroinvertebrates in Kushog Lake to assess lake health. It describes what benthic macroinvertebrates are and why they are useful for biological monitoring of water quality. Several indicators of water quality are identified based on the types of invertebrates present, such as the number of taxa collected (richness), the percentage of mayflies, dragonflies and caddisflies (%EPT), and the Hilsenhoff Index value. Recommendations are provided for monitoring benthic macroinvertebrates in Kushog Lake to evaluate lake health over time.
The document provides a water quality report card for streams in the Great Swamp Watershed. It acknowledges the efforts of volunteers and funders who supported water quality monitoring programs. Various water quality parameters are described, including how they impact aquatic life. Each of the major streams in the watershed is given grades for different parameters based on data collected in 2014. Primrose Brook and the upper reaches of Great Brook received the best grades overall, while Black Brook and the lower reaches of Great Brook showed the most impairment. Continued monitoring and improvement efforts are recommended.
Case study of_jar_water_in_kathmandu_valley-ranjana_budhathoki (1) BY Muhamm...fahadansari131
This document provides an analysis of the physico-chemical and bacteriological parameters of bottled water available in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal. It describes a case study conducted by Ranjana Budhathoki for her MSc degree. Samples from nine brands of bottled water were tested twice over three months for parameters like pH, dissolved oxygen, hardness, alkalinity, chloride, ammonia, iron, nitrates, and bacteriological contamination. The results found that physicochemical parameters were within WHO limits but bacteriological analysis found high levels of coliform bacteria, indicating contamination and unsatisfactory quality for drinking.
Roughly 663 million people lack access to safe drinking water and 1.8 billion drink unsafe water daily. An estimated 2.4 billion people lack adequate sanitation. Water and sanitation projects provide strong economic returns, with every $1 invested returning $4-34. Children are most affected by the global water crisis - 17% of child deaths are from diarrheal diseases, with 760,000 children under 5 dying each year and reductions in water collection time found to increase school attendance rates.
1. A Link NCA was conducted in four municipalities in Masbate Province, Philippines between 2014-2015. Due to a typhoon, the quantitative survey had to be stopped and data from a previous UNICEF survey was used instead.
2. Key findings identified poor sanitation infrastructure (hypothesis K), open defecation (hypothesis J), and poor liquid/solid waste management (hypothesis L and M) as major contributors to undernutrition.
3. Participants reported issues with open defecation due to lack of toilets and public latrines. They also faced challenges with solid and liquid waste management due to lack of disposal systems and garbage collection.
Water Quality and Sediment Analysis of Selected Rivers at Satara District, Ma...ijtsrd
Water pollution is one of the major global environmental problems. It is an acute problem almost in all major rivers and water reservoirs in India. Water pollution is increasing and becoming severe day by day and posing a great risk to human health and other living organisms. There is growing concern on the deterioration of ground water quality due to geogenic and anthropogenic activities. Present investigation aims at insight about the level of contaminants of surface water, groundwater and sediment analysis of selected rivers of Krishna River located in Mahuli and Urmodi river located in Nagthane, Satara district. An attempt has been made to assess the water quality, sediment analysis of the samples. Dissolved oxygen content of the water samples was observed quite well in limits such as in Krishna river Mahuli DO was 27.68mg L and in Urmodi river Nagthane was13.68mg .In the present study, COD value was observed by 720mg l at surface water of Krishna River Mahuliand 1320 mg l at surface water sample of Urmodi river Nagthane. As expected groundwater samples showed values of hardness within a limit. There is an urgent need for more representative samples to be used to go beyond preliminary assessment as reported in the present study for making appropriate recommendations. Pallavi Dhekale | Pranjal Nikam | Sagar Dadas | Chetana Patil "Water Quality and Sediment Analysis of Selected Rivers at Satara District, Maharashtra" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-6 , October 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd28062.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/pharmacy/medicinal-chemistry/28062/water-quality-and-sediment-analysis-of-selected-rivers-at-satara-district-maharashtra/pallavi-dhekale
This document discusses investment opportunities in the water sector arising from increasing global water scarcity and the need for improved conservation, supply, and technology. It outlines two main investment opportunities: 1) Water conservation through improved irrigation techniques like drip irrigation, increased metering of water usage, and variable pricing; and 2) Increasing water supply through investments in desalination plants and purification of greywater for reuse. The water crisis is expected to drive significant growth in companies developing innovative solutions in these areas.
A comparative assessment of the quality of harvested rainwater, underground w...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that assessed and compared the quality of harvested rainwater, underground water, and surface water in Ughelli, Southern Nigeria for domestic use. Water samples were collected from these three sources and analyzed in the laboratory according to WHO standards for drinking water quality. The study found variations in physico-chemical parameters between the different water sources, but parameters like pH, temperature, TDS, sulphate and zinc met WHO standards. The study concluded domestic water sources need protection and monitoring to safeguard human health and ensure sustainable water quality supply.
The Kailash Ecovillage project converting human excreta into organic foodstuf...Kimberly L. King
Since March 2014, a sustainably focused community located on a 0.7 hectares site in Portland, Oregon, USA, has
been undertaking an experimental composting toilet system modeled after the Water Efficiency and Sanitation
Standard (WE-Stand) set out by the International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO).
This system collects urine and hot composts human excreta in a dry-composting toilet system for eventual
use on the community’s organic gardens. The system design reduces the need to access municipal water,
sewer, and electrical infrastructure, enhancing emergency preparedness. It conserves an otherwise wasted
nutrient flow, and safely produces a valuable compost. The system consists of urine collection vessels, multiple
portable collection containers for excreta, toilet paper, and additive, and a compost processor. Urine diversion
has allowed the community to reclaim nitrogen and other nutrients otherwise lost in conventional sewage systems,
resulting in large savings of potable water and significant carbon sequestration via topsoil creation. Logs
showed thermophilic compost temperatures. Compost and urine pathogen testing met American National Standards
Institute and National Sanitation Foundation Standard 41 requirements.
This document summarizes a woody riparian survey conducted along Menger Creek in Boerne, Texas. Multiple transects were established upstream and downstream of a wastewater treatment plant discharge into the creek. Woody plants within quadrats along the transects were identified, counted, and measured to determine species densities, basal areas, and frequencies. Baseline water quality testing was also conducted. The survey found 12 woody plant species and will help monitor changes over time from the introduction of consistent water flow into the previously ephemeral creek from the wastewater discharge.
ANDREWS S 2015 Water Risk publ RISI Dec 2015 SAStuart Andrews
1. Water is an essential resource for the pulp and paper industry, but global demand for freshwater is increasing while supplies are dwindling, posing risks for the industry.
2. The concept of water stewardship aims to ensure sustainable water management that balances the needs of ecosystems, communities, and future generations.
3. Assessing water usage through methods like water footprint accounting and improving water efficiency will be important for the pulp and paper industry to responsibly manage their water use and impacts on local water supplies.
During my research of water treatment methods, I applied cost-benefit analysis to compare and contrast the most popular and efficient water treatment and reclamation methods.
This study assessed the impact of urban intensification on water quality and microbial communities in canals in Suzhou, China. Samples were taken from sites with high, medium, and low population densities in both summer and spring. Nutrient levels, leaf litter breakdown, and microbial abundance varied between intensity areas and seasons. Microbial communities showed elevated nutrients and microbial levels in highly urbanized sites. Organic matter broke down faster in summer. Sequencing of microbial communities is ongoing but results so far indicate urbanization alters water quality and microbes.
Long Island relies solely on groundwater for drinking water. Contamination from improper disposal of household hazardous waste and excess nutrients like nitrogen are negatively impacting water quality. Nitrogen levels are rising in all aquifers due to septic systems, sewage treatment plants, fertilizers, and agriculture. Common contaminants detected include volatile organic chemicals, MTBE, and pesticides. Over 100 pesticides have been found in drinking water wells. The top three pesticides detected are imidacloprid, atrazine, and metalaxyl. Pharmaceutical drugs are also emerging contaminants being detected in surface and groundwater. Proper disposal of wastes and reduction of hazardous chemicals is needed to protect Long Island's sole source aqu
This document summarizes a study investigating the prevalence of ESBL-producing E. coli bacteria in four Dutch recreational waters and the potential role of nearby wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) as contamination sources. Samples were taken from recreational waters, WWTP effluents, surface waters upstream and downstream of WWTP discharge points, and additional surface waters not influenced by the WWTPs. ESBL-producing E. coli were detected in all recreational waters and 62% of samples, with concentrations averaging 1.3 CFU/100ml. Isolates with identical genetic characteristics were found in WWTP effluents and surface waters, including occasionally in recreational waters, indicating WWTPs contribute to their presence. However,
Report on Academic Buildings' Water Supply And Management -SUST Mushabbir Neon
A report on water supply and management system of academic buildings of Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Sylhet, Bangladesh. This report was presented in 4th year landscape design course, B.Arch
ANALYSIS OF RISK FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH TRANSFERS OF CRYPTOSPORIDIUM
OOCYSTS IN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS OF HAITI
BALTHAZARD-ACCOU, Ketty1, PATRICE, Agnamey2, CLERVIL, Elmyre1, and EMMANUEL,
Evens1, (1) Universite Quisqueya, 218, Avenue Jean Paul II, Haut de Turgeau, Port-au-
Prince, HT6114, Haiti, kettybal@gmail.com, (2) Universite Picardie Jules Verne, Faculté de
médecine et CHU d’Amiens, Amiens, 80054, France
Cryptosporidium are protozoan parasites that infect the intestines of many vertebrates,
including humans. They cause cryptosporidiosis; one of the main traits of chronic diarrhea in
immunocompromised patients infected with HIV and acute diarrhea in young children. In Haiti,
the intestinal cryptosporidiosis is caused by at least three species: Cryptosporidium hominis,
C. parvum and C. felis wich are responsible for 17% of acute diarrhea in children less than 2
years and 30% of chronic diarrhea in patients infected with HIV. Transmission of Cryptosporidium
oocysts is often caused by the ingestion of contaminated food or water. In previous studies,
Cryptosporidium oocysts have been detected in surface water and groundwater from three
major cities of Haiti: Port-au-Prince, Cap-Haitian and Les Cayes. Significant concentrations
from 4 to 1274 oocysts in 100 liters of filtered water were determined in Port-au-Prince; in the
city of Cap-Haitian 741 to 6088 and concentrations ranging from 5 to 100 oocysts have been
obtained in groundwater from Les Cayes. Results indicate that water resources in Haiti are widely
contaminated with Cryptosporidium oocysts. Therefore, they may constitute potential sources of
biological risk particularly for human health. Since Cryptosporidium oocysts are biological colloids,
it is important to analyze the different risk factors associated with transfers of Cryptosporidium
oocysts in aquatic ecosystems of Haiti.
JBES| Water quality and socio-demographic assessment of Mahuganao Stream: inp...Innspub Net
Small as they may appear, headwater streams are very important because the health of the organism depends on that network of streams. The present study deals with the assessment of water quality of Mahuganao Stream, the socio-demographic and economic profile of residents living near the stream, the way they utilize the stream and how much waste they can produce. The analysis of the water samples collected was done in the laboratory to determine the Water Quality Index. Twelve (12) households were interviewed to elicit information on their socio-demographic and economic profile, how they utilize the stream and the amount of waste each household produces. Overall, Mahuganao stream is within the standard set by the agencies concerned such as DENR, PNSDW and USEPA. The socio-demographic profile of the community and its solid waste management is seen to be changing over time due to the fact that the median age at present is found to be within their late teens. There is a need to manage the stream as this group of people has the capacity to reproduce and could increase the anthropogenic activities and waste generation in the area.
Physico-Chemical and Microbial Analysis of Drinking Water of Four Springs of ...IJEAB
Drinking water of good quality is essential for human physiology whose continual existence depends on the availability of water and any sort of contamination in water which is above the standard limits set by international water regulating agencies can lead to water related diseases. So, the present investigation was conducted to determine the physico-chemical and bacteriological contents of four springs i.e.Heshi spring 1, Heshi spring 2, Kitaab Roong, and Kooti spring and its distribution system such as water reservoir inlet, outlet, mid and end point of distribution systems, junction where it merge with glacier water. The temperature was in a range of 13oC - 22oC. The turbidity of water samples fluctuate from 0.02NTU-1.99NTU. The pH value was in a range of 6.2-7.1. Electrical conductivity range of minimum 122µS/cm to a maximum of 600µS/cm. The TDS of all water samples ranging from minimum of 164-513mg/l. The amount of reactive ortho phosphate was in a range of 26mg/l to 59mg/L. The amount of total phosphorous was in a range of minimum 23m/L to maximum of 120mg/L. The total bacterial count was in a range of 11CFU/100ml to 83 CFU/100ml.The findings showed there should be comprehensive standardization of drinking water of Danyore village according to guidelines of WHO water quality standards and make it safe for human consumption.
This document provides information about monitoring benthic macroinvertebrates in Kushog Lake to assess lake health. It describes what benthic macroinvertebrates are and why they are useful for biological monitoring of water quality. Several indicators of water quality are identified based on the types of invertebrates present, such as the number of taxa collected (richness), the percentage of mayflies, dragonflies and caddisflies (%EPT), and the Hilsenhoff Index value. Recommendations are provided for monitoring benthic macroinvertebrates in Kushog Lake to evaluate lake health over time.
The document provides a water quality report card for streams in the Great Swamp Watershed. It acknowledges the efforts of volunteers and funders who supported water quality monitoring programs. Various water quality parameters are described, including how they impact aquatic life. Each of the major streams in the watershed is given grades for different parameters based on data collected in 2014. Primrose Brook and the upper reaches of Great Brook received the best grades overall, while Black Brook and the lower reaches of Great Brook showed the most impairment. Continued monitoring and improvement efforts are recommended.
Case study of_jar_water_in_kathmandu_valley-ranjana_budhathoki (1) BY Muhamm...fahadansari131
This document provides an analysis of the physico-chemical and bacteriological parameters of bottled water available in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal. It describes a case study conducted by Ranjana Budhathoki for her MSc degree. Samples from nine brands of bottled water were tested twice over three months for parameters like pH, dissolved oxygen, hardness, alkalinity, chloride, ammonia, iron, nitrates, and bacteriological contamination. The results found that physicochemical parameters were within WHO limits but bacteriological analysis found high levels of coliform bacteria, indicating contamination and unsatisfactory quality for drinking.
Roughly 663 million people lack access to safe drinking water and 1.8 billion drink unsafe water daily. An estimated 2.4 billion people lack adequate sanitation. Water and sanitation projects provide strong economic returns, with every $1 invested returning $4-34. Children are most affected by the global water crisis - 17% of child deaths are from diarrheal diseases, with 760,000 children under 5 dying each year and reductions in water collection time found to increase school attendance rates.
1. A Link NCA was conducted in four municipalities in Masbate Province, Philippines between 2014-2015. Due to a typhoon, the quantitative survey had to be stopped and data from a previous UNICEF survey was used instead.
2. Key findings identified poor sanitation infrastructure (hypothesis K), open defecation (hypothesis J), and poor liquid/solid waste management (hypothesis L and M) as major contributors to undernutrition.
3. Participants reported issues with open defecation due to lack of toilets and public latrines. They also faced challenges with solid and liquid waste management due to lack of disposal systems and garbage collection.
Water Quality and Sediment Analysis of Selected Rivers at Satara District, Ma...ijtsrd
Water pollution is one of the major global environmental problems. It is an acute problem almost in all major rivers and water reservoirs in India. Water pollution is increasing and becoming severe day by day and posing a great risk to human health and other living organisms. There is growing concern on the deterioration of ground water quality due to geogenic and anthropogenic activities. Present investigation aims at insight about the level of contaminants of surface water, groundwater and sediment analysis of selected rivers of Krishna River located in Mahuli and Urmodi river located in Nagthane, Satara district. An attempt has been made to assess the water quality, sediment analysis of the samples. Dissolved oxygen content of the water samples was observed quite well in limits such as in Krishna river Mahuli DO was 27.68mg L and in Urmodi river Nagthane was13.68mg .In the present study, COD value was observed by 720mg l at surface water of Krishna River Mahuliand 1320 mg l at surface water sample of Urmodi river Nagthane. As expected groundwater samples showed values of hardness within a limit. There is an urgent need for more representative samples to be used to go beyond preliminary assessment as reported in the present study for making appropriate recommendations. Pallavi Dhekale | Pranjal Nikam | Sagar Dadas | Chetana Patil "Water Quality and Sediment Analysis of Selected Rivers at Satara District, Maharashtra" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-6 , October 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd28062.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/pharmacy/medicinal-chemistry/28062/water-quality-and-sediment-analysis-of-selected-rivers-at-satara-district-maharashtra/pallavi-dhekale
This document discusses investment opportunities in the water sector arising from increasing global water scarcity and the need for improved conservation, supply, and technology. It outlines two main investment opportunities: 1) Water conservation through improved irrigation techniques like drip irrigation, increased metering of water usage, and variable pricing; and 2) Increasing water supply through investments in desalination plants and purification of greywater for reuse. The water crisis is expected to drive significant growth in companies developing innovative solutions in these areas.
A comparative assessment of the quality of harvested rainwater, underground w...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that assessed and compared the quality of harvested rainwater, underground water, and surface water in Ughelli, Southern Nigeria for domestic use. Water samples were collected from these three sources and analyzed in the laboratory according to WHO standards for drinking water quality. The study found variations in physico-chemical parameters between the different water sources, but parameters like pH, temperature, TDS, sulphate and zinc met WHO standards. The study concluded domestic water sources need protection and monitoring to safeguard human health and ensure sustainable water quality supply.
The Kailash Ecovillage project converting human excreta into organic foodstuf...Kimberly L. King
Since March 2014, a sustainably focused community located on a 0.7 hectares site in Portland, Oregon, USA, has
been undertaking an experimental composting toilet system modeled after the Water Efficiency and Sanitation
Standard (WE-Stand) set out by the International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO).
This system collects urine and hot composts human excreta in a dry-composting toilet system for eventual
use on the community’s organic gardens. The system design reduces the need to access municipal water,
sewer, and electrical infrastructure, enhancing emergency preparedness. It conserves an otherwise wasted
nutrient flow, and safely produces a valuable compost. The system consists of urine collection vessels, multiple
portable collection containers for excreta, toilet paper, and additive, and a compost processor. Urine diversion
has allowed the community to reclaim nitrogen and other nutrients otherwise lost in conventional sewage systems,
resulting in large savings of potable water and significant carbon sequestration via topsoil creation. Logs
showed thermophilic compost temperatures. Compost and urine pathogen testing met American National Standards
Institute and National Sanitation Foundation Standard 41 requirements.
This document summarizes a woody riparian survey conducted along Menger Creek in Boerne, Texas. Multiple transects were established upstream and downstream of a wastewater treatment plant discharge into the creek. Woody plants within quadrats along the transects were identified, counted, and measured to determine species densities, basal areas, and frequencies. Baseline water quality testing was also conducted. The survey found 12 woody plant species and will help monitor changes over time from the introduction of consistent water flow into the previously ephemeral creek from the wastewater discharge.
ANDREWS S 2015 Water Risk publ RISI Dec 2015 SAStuart Andrews
1. Water is an essential resource for the pulp and paper industry, but global demand for freshwater is increasing while supplies are dwindling, posing risks for the industry.
2. The concept of water stewardship aims to ensure sustainable water management that balances the needs of ecosystems, communities, and future generations.
3. Assessing water usage through methods like water footprint accounting and improving water efficiency will be important for the pulp and paper industry to responsibly manage their water use and impacts on local water supplies.
During my research of water treatment methods, I applied cost-benefit analysis to compare and contrast the most popular and efficient water treatment and reclamation methods.
This study assessed the impact of urban intensification on water quality and microbial communities in canals in Suzhou, China. Samples were taken from sites with high, medium, and low population densities in both summer and spring. Nutrient levels, leaf litter breakdown, and microbial abundance varied between intensity areas and seasons. Microbial communities showed elevated nutrients and microbial levels in highly urbanized sites. Organic matter broke down faster in summer. Sequencing of microbial communities is ongoing but results so far indicate urbanization alters water quality and microbes.
Long Island relies solely on groundwater for drinking water. Contamination from improper disposal of household hazardous waste and excess nutrients like nitrogen are negatively impacting water quality. Nitrogen levels are rising in all aquifers due to septic systems, sewage treatment plants, fertilizers, and agriculture. Common contaminants detected include volatile organic chemicals, MTBE, and pesticides. Over 100 pesticides have been found in drinking water wells. The top three pesticides detected are imidacloprid, atrazine, and metalaxyl. Pharmaceutical drugs are also emerging contaminants being detected in surface and groundwater. Proper disposal of wastes and reduction of hazardous chemicals is needed to protect Long Island's sole source aqu
This document summarizes a study investigating the prevalence of ESBL-producing E. coli bacteria in four Dutch recreational waters and the potential role of nearby wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) as contamination sources. Samples were taken from recreational waters, WWTP effluents, surface waters upstream and downstream of WWTP discharge points, and additional surface waters not influenced by the WWTPs. ESBL-producing E. coli were detected in all recreational waters and 62% of samples, with concentrations averaging 1.3 CFU/100ml. Isolates with identical genetic characteristics were found in WWTP effluents and surface waters, including occasionally in recreational waters, indicating WWTPs contribute to their presence. However,
Report on Academic Buildings' Water Supply And Management -SUST Mushabbir Neon
A report on water supply and management system of academic buildings of Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Sylhet, Bangladesh. This report was presented in 4th year landscape design course, B.Arch
ANALYSIS OF RISK FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH TRANSFERS OF CRYPTOSPORIDIUM
OOCYSTS IN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS OF HAITI
BALTHAZARD-ACCOU, Ketty1, PATRICE, Agnamey2, CLERVIL, Elmyre1, and EMMANUEL,
Evens1, (1) Universite Quisqueya, 218, Avenue Jean Paul II, Haut de Turgeau, Port-au-
Prince, HT6114, Haiti, kettybal@gmail.com, (2) Universite Picardie Jules Verne, Faculté de
médecine et CHU d’Amiens, Amiens, 80054, France
Cryptosporidium are protozoan parasites that infect the intestines of many vertebrates,
including humans. They cause cryptosporidiosis; one of the main traits of chronic diarrhea in
immunocompromised patients infected with HIV and acute diarrhea in young children. In Haiti,
the intestinal cryptosporidiosis is caused by at least three species: Cryptosporidium hominis,
C. parvum and C. felis wich are responsible for 17% of acute diarrhea in children less than 2
years and 30% of chronic diarrhea in patients infected with HIV. Transmission of Cryptosporidium
oocysts is often caused by the ingestion of contaminated food or water. In previous studies,
Cryptosporidium oocysts have been detected in surface water and groundwater from three
major cities of Haiti: Port-au-Prince, Cap-Haitian and Les Cayes. Significant concentrations
from 4 to 1274 oocysts in 100 liters of filtered water were determined in Port-au-Prince; in the
city of Cap-Haitian 741 to 6088 and concentrations ranging from 5 to 100 oocysts have been
obtained in groundwater from Les Cayes. Results indicate that water resources in Haiti are widely
contaminated with Cryptosporidium oocysts. Therefore, they may constitute potential sources of
biological risk particularly for human health. Since Cryptosporidium oocysts are biological colloids,
it is important to analyze the different risk factors associated with transfers of Cryptosporidium
oocysts in aquatic ecosystems of Haiti.
JBES| Water quality and socio-demographic assessment of Mahuganao Stream: inp...Innspub Net
Small as they may appear, headwater streams are very important because the health of the organism depends on that network of streams. The present study deals with the assessment of water quality of Mahuganao Stream, the socio-demographic and economic profile of residents living near the stream, the way they utilize the stream and how much waste they can produce. The analysis of the water samples collected was done in the laboratory to determine the Water Quality Index. Twelve (12) households were interviewed to elicit information on their socio-demographic and economic profile, how they utilize the stream and the amount of waste each household produces. Overall, Mahuganao stream is within the standard set by the agencies concerned such as DENR, PNSDW and USEPA. The socio-demographic profile of the community and its solid waste management is seen to be changing over time due to the fact that the median age at present is found to be within their late teens. There is a need to manage the stream as this group of people has the capacity to reproduce and could increase the anthropogenic activities and waste generation in the area.
Physico-Chemical and Microbial Analysis of Drinking Water of Four Springs of ...IJEAB
Drinking water of good quality is essential for human physiology whose continual existence depends on the availability of water and any sort of contamination in water which is above the standard limits set by international water regulating agencies can lead to water related diseases. So, the present investigation was conducted to determine the physico-chemical and bacteriological contents of four springs i.e.Heshi spring 1, Heshi spring 2, Kitaab Roong, and Kooti spring and its distribution system such as water reservoir inlet, outlet, mid and end point of distribution systems, junction where it merge with glacier water. The temperature was in a range of 13oC - 22oC. The turbidity of water samples fluctuate from 0.02NTU-1.99NTU. The pH value was in a range of 6.2-7.1. Electrical conductivity range of minimum 122µS/cm to a maximum of 600µS/cm. The TDS of all water samples ranging from minimum of 164-513mg/l. The amount of reactive ortho phosphate was in a range of 26mg/l to 59mg/L. The amount of total phosphorous was in a range of minimum 23m/L to maximum of 120mg/L. The total bacterial count was in a range of 11CFU/100ml to 83 CFU/100ml.The findings showed there should be comprehensive standardization of drinking water of Danyore village according to guidelines of WHO water quality standards and make it safe for human consumption.
Biometric Assessment of Bacteriological Profile of Borehole Water in Relation...Premier Publishers
This document summarizes a study that assessed the bacteriological profile of borehole water from nine student hostels in relation to sewage disposal units. Water samples were tested for total bacteria counts and fecal coliform counts. Higher counts were found in samples from hostels closer to sewage units and from older boreholes. Bacteria isolated included E. coli, Klebsiella, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Salmonella, and Vibrio cholerae. Total bacteria counts correlated with fecal coliform counts and negatively correlated with distance from sewage units. The study concludes that boreholes should be farther from sewage units and older boreholes require treatment to improve water quality.
Slaughter waste effluents and river catchment watershed contamination in Caga...Angelo Mark Walag
Slaughterhouse waste products are commonly known globally to pollute nearby communities and receiving bodies of water. The main aim of this study was to analyze the effluents disposed by Cagayan de Oro City Slaughterhouse to river catchment watershed. Standard methods were utilized in sampling and analyzing water quality parameters to determine the levels of nitrates, BOD, COD, total coliform, and lead. It was found out that the majority of wastes produced are internal organs, blood and urine mixtures, and manures. The study also revealed that all parameters tested crossed the permissible limits set by the government for effluent and inland water except for BOD and nitrates, in the river watershed. It was also determined that during wet seasons, major contaminants like lead and nitrates were diluted resulting to lower levels when compared to national standards. The result of this study also revealed the need for further remediation of the river water quality and intervention strategies to sustainably manage and prevent disposal of untreated effluents.
Microbial characterisation and identification, and potability of River Kuywa ...Open Access Research Paper
Water contamination is one of the major causes of water borne diseases worldwide. In Kenya, approximately 43% of people lack access to potable water due to human contamination. River Kuywa water is currently experiencing contamination due to human activities. Its water is widely used for domestic, agricultural, industrial and recreational purposes. This study aimed at characterizing bacteria and fungi in river Kuywa water. Water samples were randomly collected from four sites of the river: site A (Matisi), site B (Ngwelo), site C (Nzoia water pump) and site D (Chalicha), during the dry season (January-March 2018) and wet season (April-July 2018) and were transported to Maseno University Microbiology and plant pathology laboratory for analysis. The characterization and identification of bacteria and fungi were carried out using standard microbiological techniques. Nine bacterial genera and three fungi were identified from Kuywa river water. Clostridium spp., Staphylococcus spp., Enterobacter spp., Streptococcus spp., E. coli, Klebsiella spp., Shigella spp., Proteus spp. and Salmonella spp. Fungi were Fusarium oxysporum, Aspergillus flavus complex and Penicillium species. Wet season recorded highest bacterial and fungal counts (6.61-7.66 and 3.83-6.75cfu/ml) respectively. The results indicated that the river Kuywa water is polluted and therefore unsafe for human consumption before treatment. It is therefore recommended that the communities to ensure that they boil water especially for drinking.
Physico Chemical and Bacteriological Quality of Water Sources in the Coast of...ijtsrd
The study of water sources used by the population of Ndian for drinking with the exception of the Ekondo Titi beach was carried out by investigating 51 water sources. Due to the lack of pipe borne water in this area, the population is compelled to consume water from unprotected shallow aquifers and surface water sources, there by exposing the population to infections form of water borne diseases. In this perspective, the present study was aimed to check the suitability of these water sources for drinking. The bacteriological quality of the water sources was performed using the Most Probable Number MPN technique. Temperature, pH, electrical conductivity EC and total dissolved solids TDS were also determined. The pH values reflect slightly acidic, neutral and basic water sources. Sixty percent 60 of the ground water samples where slightly acidic 5.5 6.4 and out of the WHO 2011 guideline limit 6.5 8.5 for drinking water. This situation puts the inhabitants at risk to stomach ulcer. The electrical conductivity values 3.00 274 us cm for groundwater sources represents water experiencing slight mineralization. Based on the total coliform bacteria, 96 of water sources were polluted to grossly polluted 75 2400 MPN 100 ml and 4 excellent following the acceptable maximum limits prescribed by the World Health Organization Standards which exposes the population to water borne diseases such as typhoid, cholera and dysentery. The bacteria contamination of the water sources may result from the waste of pit toilets that intersect the water tables of shallow unconfined aquifers and also from poor sanitation practices carried out along stream channels and springs. Proper water treatment at household levels is highly recommended. Engome R. Wotany | Samuel N. Ayonghe | Mengnjo J. Wirmvem | Wilson Y. Fantong "Physico-Chemical and Bacteriological Quality of Water Sources in the Coast of Ndian, South West Region, Cameroon: Health Implications" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd26626.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/geology/26626/physico-chemical-and-bacteriological-quality-of-water-sources-in-the-coast-of-ndian-south-west-region-cameroon-health-implications/engome-r-wotany
Assessment of the Household Practices of Drinking Water Collection, Transport...ijtsrd
Introduction The supply of potable water in low resource countries has been a public health concern, with frequent water interruptions, leaving the population vulnerable to access to potable water in households, which renders the population at risk of waterborne diseases like cholera. Our objectives were to assess the household practices of drinking water collection, transportation and storage in the Fako Division of the Southwest Region of Cameroon.Methods This was a cross sectional study with a mixed method approach. Focus Group Discussions were done to get an inside of the observed practices and a quasi experimental study with education as an intervention. A total of 394 households were randomly selected and issued a pretested questionnaire. A multistage random sampling technique was used to recruit the participants in the households in the four health districts of Fako. For the quasi experiment, 50 water samples from 50 homes were tested before and after the intervention to measure the mean microbial score in stored household drinking water. A one sample t test was used to compare the mean microbial colony count at baseline and 3 months post intervention. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 23. Crude and adjusted odds ratios and confidence intervals were reported at a significance level of 0.05. Results Assessing the participants practice in drinking water collection and transportation, 273 69.3 of the participants reported public taps as their primary source of drinking water. The main alternative source of drinking water was spring 233 59.1 . More than half 56.3 of the respondents reported that they take more than 30 minutes to fetch water, done mostly by children 62.2 , and the majority 89.1 do this by trekking. Over half, 268 68 of the participants used buckets with lids, and 119 30.2 , use jerry cans to fetch water. A total of 184 46.7 reported a bucket with a lid as the water storage container meanwhile 34 8.6 and 176 44.7 stored water in a bucket with no lid and jerry cans respectively. Almost a half 180 46.9 store their drinking water for more than 2 days. The mean bacterial colony count 29.72 ± 40.07 after the intervention was significantly lower than the mean bacterial colony at baseline 71.4 ± 68.38, t 50 = 6.846, P 0.001 .Conclusion The primary source of drinking water in Fako is public tap, alternative source being a spring. More than half of the participants trek to fetch water and almost half of the participants store drinking water for more than 2 days. Intervention with health education significantly lowered the mean bacterial colony count in household drinking water. Malika Esembeson | Palle John Ngunde | Kamgno Joseph | Ronald Gobina | Vivian EA Eta | Binwi Florence Nkemayim | Ndefon Peter | Serge Ngekeng | Kukwah Anthony Tufon | Ngomba Divine Martin Mokake | Henry Dilonga Meriki | Njunda Anna Longdoh "Assessment of the Household Practices of Drinking Water Collection, Transportation and Storage in Fako Division, South-
Assessment of physicochemical and bacteriological drinking water quality of d...IJERA Editor
Water is essential to sustain the life. Water samples have collected from a different urban area of H. D. Kote
town of Mysore district from different sources such as hand pump, public taps, and stored household drinking
water. Physico-chemical and microbiological characteristics of the water samples were analysed following the
standard methods to evaluate the quality of drinking water. All physic-chemical parameters are within the
permissible limit to WHO. The microbiological analysis shows that that t nearly 53 % of the samples were
observed with coliform contamination. The significant difference among water sources regarding total plate
count was observed, where stored household water has relatively higher compared to tap and borewell water
exceeding the standard limit. Both hand pump and the tap water were not detected with any E. coli
contamination whereas 80% of the household stored water samples have shown E. coli contamination. The
presence of significant counts of coliforms in stored household water indicates post poor sanitation and
existence of human activities. Attention should be given to the collection, storage, and management by
additional treatment to maintain and prevent excessive microbial growth
Studies on the Bacteriological quality of vegetable crops irrigated with dome...Premier Publishers
The bacteriological quality of vegetable crops irrigated with domestic wastewater in Aliero, Kebbi State, Nigeria was analysed. The vegetable samples were collected during October 2013 and September 2014 in Aliero town in a period of three months across the two seasons (i.e., the dry and rainy seasons). After the analysis, the following bacterial spp were isolated from the vegetable crops irrigated with domestic wastewater water; Salmonella spp (14.0%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (13.2%), Klebsiella spp (16.0%), Shigella spp (19.2%), Escherichia coli (41.6%), Citrobacter spp (25.2%), Proteus spp (15.6%) and Campylobacter spp (6.8%). The bacterial spp isolated from vegetables irrigated with tube well water was Staphylococcus aureus (26.8%), Escherichia coli (14.0%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (8.8%), Diplococcus spp (12.0%) and Corynebacteria spp (1.2%). Escherichia coli and Citrobacter spp were recorded to have the highest number of occurrence in vegetables irrigated with domestic wastewater, with the percentage of 41.6% and 22.2% respectively. While Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli have the highest occurrence of 26.8% and 14.0% respectively in vegetables irrigated with tube well water. This study highlights the health risk associated with the consumption of these vegetables particularly those consumed raw.
Suitability of tube wells water for drinking at lalpur upazila in natore dist...Khulna University
The aim of the study was to observe the suitability of tube-wells water consumed by people of Lalpur upazila in Natore district for drinking purpose in comparison to standard of World Health Organization (WHO) and the standard of Bangladesh. In this study, it was tried to find out the physical and chemical conditions of the drinkable tube-wells water used in the studied region and to observe the presence or absence of total coliform & Escherichia coli bacteria.
An Assessment on Drinking Water Quality and Management in Kakamega Municipalitypaperpublications3
Abstract: Drinking water must be free from components which may adversely affect the human health. Such components include minerals, organic substances and disease causing microorganisms. A large portion of the population in urban areas in developing countries suffers from health problems associated with either lack of drinking water or due to the presence of microbiological contamination in water. This research was conducted in Kakamega municipality with a broad objective to conduct assessment of water quality and management in Kakamega municipality. The Specific objective was to determine the chemical water quality parameters in water and to evaluate the management practices on water in Kakamega municipality. Four water quality parameters; two physical and two chemical were tested from the samples collected for this research work. Sampling technique was purposive where water samples from water sources and distribution points in densely populated areas of Kakamega municipality were taken. Data collection instruments that were used included sterilized bottles to collect water, delivery to the laboratory within six (6) hours of collection for reliable results and data quality control was achieved through immediate entry in the pre-designed data form. According to the results pH values at all the sources and house connections are well within the WHO desirable limit of 6.50-8.0. The sample from Sichirai had a pH of 7.8 that was the highest as compared to an Isiukhu river that had 6.6 pH. The samples from Isiukhu river, Savona Island River, fishpond at bridge and Shikhambi spring showed more than 5 NTU. The researchers recommended for water surveillance in Kakamega municipality in order to ensure consumers have safe water free from agricultural and industrial chemical pollution.
Status of Sanitation and Hygienic Conditions in Urban Communities in Gomoa Ea...Premier Publishers
The study examined the sanitation and hygienic conditions in urban communities in Gomoa East District in Central Region of Ghana. A cross sectional survey research design was adopted for the study. Simple random sampling technique was used to select 360 inhabitants from three urban communities. A structured questionnaire was used for data collection. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse the data. The study revealed that tap water was the major source of drinking water in the communities, usually purchased from water vendors and stored in closed containers. Most inhabitants (42.5 %) used Public Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) latrines. Some household toilets (21.7 %) never had covers whilst the ones which had covers too were not closed after they had been used. As a result, most toilets produced offensive odour. Unwholesome environmental practices such as open dumping and burning of garbage were prevalent in the study area. The result of the multiple logistic regression showed significant association between gender and their participation in community sanitation exercise (p < 0.05) with male showing more participation than females (OR = 0.516, C.I = 0.308 – 0.865). The state of sanitation and hygienic conditions in the Gomoa East District was inadequate. There is the need for the District Environmental Health and Sanitation Department to establish and enforce a more robust environmental sanitation approach and health education to improve upon sanitary conditions in the Gomoa East District.
Assessment of Groundwater Quality in Ilorin, North Central NigeriaAZOJETE UNIMAID
This study assessed the quality of groundwater samples collected from eight open wells in Ilorin, Nigeria between 2014-2015. Physicochemical and bacteriological analyses were performed on the water samples. The results found that temperature, pH, turbidity and total solids of most samples met national and international guidelines. However, two samples exceeded the turbidity limit. Additionally, all water sources showed total bacterial and coliform counts above recommended limits, indicating contamination with pathogens like E. coli and their unsuitability for human consumption. In general, the study found evidence of groundwater pollution in the area from anthropogenic activities that threatens the water resources and public health.
Detection Of Escherichia Coli, An Indicator Of Feacal Contamination, In Drink...IOSR Journals
The detection of Escherichia coli as an indicator of faucal contamination in drinking water sources in Amassoma town, a host Community of the Niger Delta University, Bayelsa State in the Niger Delta of Nigeria, was carried out to determine their suitability for drinking. Result obtained showed mean total coliform bacterial counts of 2.05 x103 cfu/ml for borehole water, 1.25x103 cfu/ml for well water and 1.0x103 for pipe borne water. The mean count of faecal coliform was 2.1x103 cfu/ml for borehole water, 4.5x10 cfu/ml for well water and 1.0x10 cfu/ml for pipe borne water. The faecal coliform identified was Escherichia coli. Sources of contamination were found to be septic tanks, waste dump sites and periodic flooding of the area, being a typical wetland environment. It was concluded that water from the different sources studied in Amassoma did not meet the world health Organization (WHO) standard for drinking water. This study has therefore shown the need for continuous monitoring of our water supply systems.
Assessing the availability of community water at Madlangamphisi, a community ...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
The research was conducted to assess the availability of domestic water and the extent of the problems associated with water scarcity at Madlangamphisi area in the Hhohho district of Eswatini. The research was a descriptive survey. A questionnaire was used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data for the survey. A total of 169 households out of 300 households in the community were randomly selected to participate in the survey. The majority (56.2%) of the households confirmed that there was water scarcity problems in the area as the streams they used for domestic water frequently dried up during the winter months. The study showed that a majority, 51.5% used water from rivers as the main source of domestic water, while 40.2% of the people travelled for more than 1,000 m to fetch water. To cope with water scarcity problems, 43.2% of the households reduced their water consumption level during droughts while 45% practiced rooftop rainwater harvesting. The study concluded that Madlangamphisi community experienced serious water scarcity problems since they relied on unprotected water sources for domestic use. Moreover, they had to travel for more than 200 m to collect water from nearest sources which is considered an indication of water scarcity by the WHO. The study observed that there was a need to introduce a rural water supply scheme in the area to solve the water scarcity problems and that households should treat water for drinking by either boiling or use a disinfectant to eliminate pathogenic organisms in the water.
Implications of Household (Domestic) Use of Hard water on Molepolole Residentskoketso Kanekane
This document summarizes a study on the implications of using hard water for household purposes in Molepolole, Botswana. The study acknowledges contributions from participants, course lecturers, and internet sources. It contains an introduction on water scarcity issues in Botswana and Molepolole's reliance on underground water sources. The study aims to document residents' awareness, satisfaction, and actions regarding hard water usage and its effects on health and appliances. Results indicate residents are aware of water quality differences but still use hard water, affecting children under 12 and causing appliance clogging. Residents support water treatment despite costs. The study concludes a water treatment plant is needed to provide safe, soft water and improve lives in Molepolole.
Consumers' willingness to pay for improved water services in ilorin metropoli...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that assessed consumers' willingness to pay for improved water services in Ilorin, Nigeria. Key findings include:
- The mean willingness to pay of households for improved water services was 1023.18 naira. Age, education, and price significantly influenced willingness to pay.
- Access to potable water was estimated at 58% in urban areas of Kwara state but only 12% in rural areas. Water infrastructure was poorly maintained.
- There is a large "water gap" in Kwara state between available water and needs, which must be addressed to meet Millennium Development Goals for water access.
High Five program: final report (2011-2014)abby ati
The final report of High Five program, a sanitation and hygiene practices improvement program, implemented in three cities in Indonesia: Medan, Surabaya and Makassar.
Multiple Use of Surface Water Resources and Bacteria Colonization of Water Bo...Editor IJCATR
Water samples collected along the water courses of surface water sources of domestic water supply in Ezinihite Mbaise were analyzed for bacterial species inventory and total viable count (TVC) using the multiple test tube technique and colony counters. The surface waters covered include Ariam River and other tributaries that constitute the bulk of surface water resources in the area. Eight species of bacteria including E-coli, staphylococcus aureus, salmonella, and fecal streptococci among others were identified. Total viable counts gave alarming growth levels when compared o the standards as set by the world health organization (WHO). The microbial population explosion in the river is attributable to the multiple activities within and around the river also the uses including wash off from abattoirs carrying abattoir wastes directly into the river, domestic wastes dumped along the recharge path, others include in stream fermentation of food stuff and general laundry point for any for clothes, automobiles. All these make sufficiently available to enhance microbial growth. Surface water use should be monitored to ensure sustainability and proper management of watershed will control this trend of colonization of public water supply sources and in turn control the trends in water borne infections.
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Determinants of household water quality in the tamale metropolis, ghana
1. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol. 3, No.7, 2013
70
Determinants of Household Water Quality in the Tamale
Metropolis, Ghana
Daniel Boateng 1*
Martha Tia-Adjei2
Ellis Adjei Adams3
1. Department of Community Health, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
2. Environmental Health and Sanitation Directorate, Tamale, Ghana
3. Department of Geography, Michigan State University, USA
* E-mail of the corresponding author: kingdannie@gmail.com
Abstract
Improved water source is essential for the health of both urban and rural dwellers. However, Over 1 billion
people globally are without access to clean water and adequate sanitation facilities. The purpose of this study
was to assess the factors that influence water quality in the Tamale metropolis, Ghana. The study was conducted
with 250 respondents who were randomly sampled and interviewed. Data was analyzed with STATA 11
software. Chi-square and multivariate regression analysis were used to investigate the relationships between
socio-demographic characteristics, water source, and water collection and storage methods and household water
quality. Two assays of water quality were used: heterotrophic plate count (HPC) for total coliform and feacal
counts and the multiple tube method for Escherichia Coli (E coli). The study results shows that majority of
samples tested had feacal coliforms. Water from 83% of studied samples tested positive for the presence of E
coli in household water. Source of water, distance to water source, place and duration of water storage
influenced household water quality. Households with water source outside homes were less likely to have quality
water (OR=0.19; p<0.01). On-the-point household treatment strategies should be adopted to make water safe for
household consumption.
Keywords: Household, Quality, Storage, Tamale, Water, Ghana
1. Introduction
Water is identified as one of the most important natural resources because it is viewed as key to prosperity and
wealth (Arbués et al 2003). The World Health Organization defines improved water source as one that is
protected from outside contamination (WHO/UNICEF, 2010). Although an increasing number of people have
access to improved water, rapid urban population growth in the Sub-Saharan African region has equally
increased the number of people without proper access to water (WHO/UNICEF, 2010). Data from the World
Health Organization (WHO) indicates that 87% of the world’s population, and 84% of the population living in
the developing world now use drinking water from safer and improved sources (WHO, 2010). Fifty-seven
percent of the world’s population also gets their drinking water from a piped connection that provides running
water in their homes or compound. However, in Sub-Saharan African, just 60% of the population uses improved
sources of drinking-water (WHO, 2010). The main sources most especially in African countries are from
boreholes, pipe borne, deep and shallow wells, dug outs, streams, rivers which are mostly of poor quality. Water
quality is a growing concern throughout the developing world (UNICEF, 2012) and sources of drinking water
are constantly under threat from contamination. This has both public health consequences as well as
socioeconomic implications (UNICEF, 2012). Faecal contamination of drinking water is a major contributor to
diarrhea, water borne disease responsible for the death of millions of children every year (UNICEF, 2012).
Ghana is faced with a problem of access to clean drinking water and sanitation systems contributing to 70% of
diseases in the country (AfDB/ OECD, 2007). Consequently, households without access to clean water are
forced to use less reliable and hygienic sources, and often pay more for unsafe water than the wealthy (AfDB/
OECD, 2007). According to a World Vision Report in 2008, about 48% of the total population does not have
access to portable water. The main sources of portable water are from piped sources and mechanized boreholes.
In the Tamale metropolis, it is estimated that only about 53% of the population have access to portable water
while the rest of the population depend on dams, open wells and dug outs which are often contaminated with
faecal matter for their domestic use (CWSA, 2010). Albert et al (2010) in their study to determine the quality of
water at the point of use (POU) discovered that Surface waters (earth pan and river) had significantly more E.
coli than harvested rainwater and standpipe (tap) water. Despite the availability of clean water from taps,
boreholes and tanks, problems are often experienced with accessibility and availability (Jagals, 2006). This
scarcity and inconsistency in the supply of portable water especially in developing countries leads to the
inevitable practice of households storing water for future use in containers. More often than not, water is not
used completely that same day but stored in plastic, metal, concrete reservoirs and earthenware containers which
influence water quality (Levy et al, 2008; Mintz et al. 1995). Storage duration mostly range from days to months
depending on the sizes of the storage containers used and the number of users in a household. In the Tamale
2. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol. 3, No.7, 2013
71
Metropolis, although a little over half of the population has access to safe water, little is known about the quality
of the water at the domestic level and how storage practices might influence it. This study sought to fill the gap
by assessing the determinants of water quality in the Tamale metropolis.
2. Study Setting and Methods
This study was carried out in all the three sub-metropolitan areas (North, South, Central) within the Tamale
Metropolitan area of Ghana with an estimated total population of 377,165. Tamale is one of the twenty
administrative and political districts in the Northern Region of Ghana and also serves as the regional capital. The
common diseases in the metropolis are malaria, gastroenteritis and diarrhea (GHS, 2010). The major source of
water for domestic uses is derived from pipe borne water which serves about 52% of the entire population in
Tamale. The rest of the population depends on hand dug wells, boreholes especially for those in the educational
institutions and a few depend on dams and deep tube wells for water.
A multi stage sampling technique was used to recruit respondents for the study. First, a simple random sampling
technique was used to select four communities from each of the three sub-metropolitan areas making a total of
twelve communities. Simple random technique was used to select the respondents at the household level. The
target population was defined and restricted to include all household heads 18years and above within the selected
communities. However, in instances where the household head was absent, the next adult (eighteen years and
above) was interviewed. In cases where we did not find any person in an eligible house, the immediate next
house was considered and interviewed as well as water samples taken. A total of 250 household heads were
interviewed for the study.
2.1 Sample analysis
Samples were collected from water storage receptacles into sterilized sample containers which were autoclaved
at a temperature of 121 degree Celsius from each household. All samples were then collected into ice coolers and
iced blocks put on them in other to sustain micros life. Samples were taken to the laboratory within four hours
each day to preserve the sample for analysis. Two assays of water quality were used; heterotrophic plate count
(HPC) for total coliform and feacal counts and the multiple tube method for Escherichia Coli. All results were
read after 24 hours of incubation at 37degree Celsius for feacal and total coliform count and 42 degree celsius for
E coli.
2.2 Data collection and statistical analysis
We used a questionnaire to collect the data. This questionnaire asked for specific factual information concerning
the respondents’ sources, collection and storage of water as well as certain socio demographic characteristics.
Data collected was entered on SPSS version 19 and analyzed using STATA 11. Demographics, water sources,
collection and storage were assessed using descriptive statistics, and chi-square analysis. A multivariate analysis
of factors influencing household water quality was assessed with a logistic regression.
3.0 Results
Result from the sample analysis indicates that 19.6% of the household water tested had no feacal coliforms, 29.9%
had feacal coliforms of 1- 10 counts per ml, 30.9% 11 – 100 counts per ml and 19.6% more than 100 counts per
ml. Water from 83% of studied samples tested positive for the present of E coli in household water.
3.1 Socio- demographic factors and household water quality
Majority of respondents in this study were non-literate. None of the socio-demographic variables had significant
influence on household water quality in the bivariate analysis, Table 1. Water quality was however higher among
respondent who were non-literate than those who were literates (61.5% versus 38.5%).
3.2 Relationship between source and collection of water and household water quality
Table 2 shows results of the influence of water source and water collection method on household water quality.
About 96% of the households involved in this study used pipe borne water. However about 57% of these were
not located in the house of the households. The source of water had significant relationship with household water
quality (p=0.049) with 76.2% of respondent who use pipe-borne water having water of good quality. The
percentage of households with quality water source was significantly higher among those who have in-house
water source rather than those who fetch water from outside public stand pipes (25.4% versus 9.9%; p=0.009).
Household water quality was also influenced by distance to water source (p=0.042) but not with time spent to get
water and containers used for collection water from source, Table 2.
3.3 Water storage, household sanitation practice and water quality
As shown in table 3, household water quality in the metropolis was significantly influenced by the place of water
storage (p=0.032). Items used for storing water in the metropolis included metal drums (38.6%), plastic drums
(20.5%), poly/sintex tanks (5%), earthen ware pots (29.5%) and aluminimum pots (3.5%). The results also shows
a significant association between duration of water storage and the quality of household water (p=0.025). The
percentage of households with quality water was higher among respondents who had toilet in the house than
3. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol. 3, No.7, 2013
72
those who did not although this relationship was not significant. The frequency of cleaning storage container and
what is used in cleaning the storage container all had no significant association with household water quality.
Table 4 presents a stepwise multivariate regression analysis of the extent of influence of the various independent
variables on the quality of water among the sub metros under study. The model 1 presents analysis of the
influence of household water source and collection on the water quality. The model 2 assessed the combined
influence of the household water source /collection and the household water storage as well as the influence of
the residence of respondents on the quality of water. The source of water for household consumption and
distance to source of water showed significant relationship with household water storage in model 1.
Household’s with water source outside their homes were less likely to have quality water (OR=0.19; p<0.01).
Holding all variables constant, respondents who traveled 100 to 500m to water source were less likely to have
quality water in their household with respect to respondents who travel shorter distances (OR= 0.48; p<0.05). A
similar association was observed in the model 2 where all other factors were controlled for (OR= 0.62; p<0.05).
The place of water storage also had significant association with household water quality, Table 4.
4. Discussion
This study was designed to assess the factors influencing household water quality at the Tamale Metropolis in
the Northern Region Ghana. The lack of clean drinking water and sanitation systems is a severe public health
concern in Ghana, contributing to about 70% of diseases in the country. Consequently, households without
access to clean water are forced to use less reliable and unhygienic sources (AfDB/ OECD, 2007). The quality of
water for household consumption was measured by the presence of feacal coliforms and E coli in tested samples.
Majority of the tested samples had feacal coliforms of more than 10 counts per ml and 83% tested positive for E
coli. This indicates a low quality of household water for consumption among studied households and unsafe for
household consumption.
Differences in socio-demographic characteristics might play a role in water quality of the household (McGarvey
et al, 2008). While McGarvey et al (2008) in their study of household water quality in coastal Ghana found a
positive relationship between household size and the presence of E.coli, our results are rather contradictory as we
found that educational levels and household size did not show significant influence on household water quality.
Water quality in the Metropolis might be dependent of other factors relating to acquisition and storage rather
than household characteristics.
The sources of household water in our study areas were mainly pipes, boreholes and unprotected deep wells. The
quality of water was 76.2% for pipe borne water, 43.1% for borehole and 35.9% protected deep well. Results in
the study indicates that protected deep wells had significantly more E.coli (64.1% of tested samples) as
compared to boreholes (56.9% of tested samples) and was low in pipe borne water (23.8%). Albert et al (2010)
in their study to determine the quality of water at the point of use (POU) also discovered that standpipe (tap)
water and harvested rainwater had significantly less E. coli than surface waters (earth pan and river). The water
supply and sanitation sector in Ghana faces a number of challenges, including very limited access to sanitation,
intermittent supply, high water losses and low water pressure and therefore cannot meet the demand from all
households to be supplied with tap water. This situation is not limited to Ghana alone. Advocating for simple
storage and purification strategies will help improve water quality at the household level. Many homes in Ghana
tend to fetch water outside their domestic homes for use. Developing areas may sometimes be supplied with tap
water but the distribution system does not follow the normal regulation of the taps built in-house, but rather
communal taps which often are some distance from the main house (Jagals, 2006). In this study, some
households were traveling 500m to source of water. Frenierre (2009) also indicated that at some instances,
people walk between 5 and 10km to get to source of water. Distance to the facility had significant influence on
water quality in this study with quality being higher among those who collect water from a short distance. A
recent estimate reveals that about 52% of the population traveled half an hour or more to collect water every day
(CSA, 2006).
Previous studies have shown that the bacteriological quality of drinking water significantly declines after
collection (Wright et al, 2004), suggesting that safer household water storage and treatment (point-of-use) should
be the recommended focus of intervention efforts (Clasen & Bastable 2003; Gundry et al, 2004). As a result of
the non-availability of a constant provision of water for households, individuals tend in one way or the other to
store water in containers for future use. The type of container used for the storage of household water can
determine the wholesomeness of the water at the point of use. Levy et al (2008) established that, the type of
storage container used for storing water at the household level could also influence the outcome of the water.
The containers for household water storage in the metropolis included metal drums, plastic drums, poly tanks,
earthen ware and aluminum pots. Pots, metal buckets, plastic buckets, jerry cans, plastic basins, barrel/drums,
cooking pots/saucepans were also cited as storage containers in a study by Kumwenda (2009). In this study,
type of containers significantly influenced the quality of water consumed by the household. This is consistent
4. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol. 3, No.7, 2013
73
with previous studies showing that factors related to the container, such as large versus small mouth and covered
or uncovered, are key factors in determining quality of stored water (Mintz et al, 1995). The study by Brick et al
(2004) also found significant association between storage container and level of microbial contamination. The
influence of water storage on microbial levels was also evident in the interventional study by Sobsey et al (2003),
where Escherichia coli levels in stored household waters were <1/100 mL in most intervention households
(household water chlorination and storage in a special container) but readily detectable at high levels in control
households. Lautenschlager et al (2010) also measured the effect of stagnation on water quality and found out
that cell concentrations, measured by flow cytometry, increased in all water samples after stagnation. This
increase was also observed in adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) concentrations and heterotrophic plate counts.
Despite the availability of cleaner water from taps, boreholes and tanks, problems are often experienced with
accessibility and availability of the supply water (Jagal, 2006). This scarcity and inconsistency in the supply of
portable water especially in developing countries leads to the inevitable practice of households storing water for
future use in containers. The level of duration can also increase the risk of household water contamination and
provide breeding grounds for mosquitoes - which are carriers of dengue fever, malaria and other diseases (Jajal,
2006). Momba and Mnqumevu (2000) in their study revealed that households could store water for a duration
ranging from 1-2 days, 3 days, a few hours and up to 7 days. In this study, microbial contamination was
significantly higher among water stored for more than a month as compared to storage periods of 1-3 days and 1
– 2 weeks. This was consistent with the study by Brick et al (2004) where on household storage, 25/37 (67%) of
freshly pumped water showed increased contamination during storage periods from 1to 9 days. However, it is
well known that the materials used for the distribution system or storage and the exposure time have an impact
on the microbial quality of water. Perhaps, it would be much safer to store water for very short periods as
possible to prevent deterioration of drinking water Momba and Mnqumeve (2000).
Limitations of the study
This study might not have investigated all necessary household factors that might influence the quality of water
in the household. The study did not access data on sanitary practices that could influence the quality of water in
the household. Previous studies indicate the importance of sanitary habits and the possible contamination of
household water in storage vessels. It was however assumed that the various factors studied were equally
important in determining the factors influence household water quality. Seasonal changes could also impact on
the quality of water in the household for those who were not relying on pipe-borne water and this might have
influenced the level of water quality measured. Lastly, the study might have suffered some information bias as
translating the questionnaire from the English language to Dagbani (native language of the study area) could
have created some gaps.
5. Conclusions
About 83% of the tested samples had E coli present and majority had feacal coliforms. This indicates that the
quality of water is low in the metropolis and this could have various health concerns for residents in the
metropolis. This could however also be due to the fact that people are storing water in various forms and that is
affecting the quality. Increased efforts to improve water supply in terms of quantity and quality to all households
might help solve these. The low quality level however could also be due to the source of water. Households
should therefore be taught simple purification strategies to help improve water quality at the household level.
Advocates of point–of-use disinfection of household water should be encouraged to enhance the quality of water
in households to prevent deterioration. For instance, the use of the locally manufactured ceramic filters could be
encouraged at home at least to take care of water for drinking. With the current water problems facing Urban
Water Company and their current capacity, making it impossible to distribute water to every household in the
country; there should be an advocate for use of appropriate containers that will minimize microbial growth.
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Table 1: Bivariate analysis showing the influence of socio-demographic factors on household water
quality
variables Water quality Chi
Square(X2
)
p-value
Quality (%) Not quality (%)
Level of education
− Literate
− Non-literate
38.5
61.5
43.9
56.1
3.11 0.063
Household size
− 1-10
− 11-20
− >20
14.3
23.8
13.8
85.7
76.2
86.2
2.466 0.651
Table 2: Bivariate analysis showing the influence of water source and collection method on household
water quality
Variables
Water quality Chi
Square(X2
)
p-value
Quality (%) Not quality (%)
Source of domestic water
− Pipe
− Borehole
− Protected deep well
76.2
43.1
35.9
23.8
56.9
64.1
5.673 0.049
Source of water in house
− Yes
− No
25.4
9.9
74.6
90.1
6.73 0.009
Distance to water source
− 10m – 50m
− 50 - 100m
− 100 – 500m
23.0
11.8
10.0
77.0
88.2
90.0
839 0.042
Time spent to get water
− <3omins
− 30mins - 1hour
− 1hr- 2 hrs
12.2
6.7
3.1
87.8
93.3
96.9
0.896 0.639
Container to collect water from
source
− Basin
− Gariwa
− Jerry cans
− Buckets
− Others
27.0
11.6
27.3
11.2
8.3
73.0
88.4
72.7
81.8
91.7
5.969 0.201
7. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
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76
Table 3 Results of bivariate analysis showing the influence of water storage and household sanitation
practices on water quality
Variables
Household water Chi Square
(X2
)
p-value
Quality (%) Not Quality (%)
Place of water storage
− Metal drums
− Plastic drums
− Poly/ sintex tank
− Earthen ware pots
− Aluminum pots
16.7
34.6
8.9
17.5
6.7
83.3
65.4
91.1
82.5
93.3
13.789 0.032
Duration of water storage
− 1 – 3 days
− 1 week – 2 weeks
− More than a month
16.9
9.1
33.3
83.1
90.9
66.7
4.155 0.025
Toilet in house
− Yes
− No
25.9
14.5
74.1
85.5
2.124 0.145
Type of toilet in house
− Water closet
− KVIP
− Enviro Loo
22.2
33.3
-
77.8
66.7
-
1.9259 0.382
Frequency of cleaning storage
container
− Everyday
− Once a week
− Once a month
8.6
21.7
15.4
91.4
78.4
84.6
5.3719 0.497
What used in cleaning storage
container
− Water only
− Water and soap
− Water, soap and sponge
26.7
17.4
18.4
73.3
82.6
81.6
3.3912 0.907
8. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
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77
Table 4: Results of regression analysis of influence of water source, collection and storage on household
water quality
Model 1 Model 2
Covariates OR (95% CI) OR (95% CI)
I. household water source/ collection
Source of domestic water
− Pipe
− Borehole
− Protected deep well
1
0.11 (0.02, 0.99)
0.58 (0.22, 1.87)
1
0.32 (0.07, 0.75)*
0.65 (0.11, 2.93)
Source not located in house 0.19 (0.04, 0.97)** 0.12 (0.02, 0.25)
Distance to water source
− 10 – 50m
− 50 – 100m
− 100 – 500m
− >500
1
1.14 (0.44, 2.91)
0.48 (0.08, 0.74)*
0.42 (0.10, 1.31)
1
1.21 (0.44, 3.33)
0.82 (0.45, 0.98)*
0.67 (0.16, 1.92)
Time taken to get water
− Less than 30mins
− 30mins – 1 hour
− 1hour - 2 hours
− >2 hours
1
0.38 (0.10, 1.50)
0.01 (0.00, 0.20)
-
1
0.25 (0.05, 1.23)
0.01 (0.00, 1.17)
-
Container to collect water
− Basin
− Gariwa
− Jerry cans
− Buckets
1
0.56 (0.25, 1.28)
1.40 (0.31, 6.41)
0.57 (0.06, 5.41)
1
0.57 (0.22, 1.47)
1.42 (0.28, 7.15)
0.50 (0.05, 5.48)
II. Household water storage
Place of storage 1.34 (0.95, 1.88)*
Duration of storage
− 1-3 days
− 1 week – 2 weeks
− More than a month
1
2.15 (0.73, 6.38)
1.01 (0.17, 5.88)
III. Sub-metro
− Tamale North
− Tamale Central
− Tamale South
1
2.31 (0.78, 6.81)
0.71 (0.19, 2.64)
Number of observations
Log likelihood
Prob> chi2
228
-90.479
0.0020
215
-73.674
0.0034
*p<0.05; **p<0.01; (-) omitted; main outcome = water quality
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