This document discusses molecular endocrinology and hormones. It defines endocrinology, describes the major endocrine glands and hormones, and explains hormone structure, synthesis, mechanisms of action, transport, and regulation. Key points include that hormones act as chemical messengers to modify distant organ functions, are produced in one part of the body and carried via circulation to target tissues, and include proteins, peptides, amino acid derivatives, and steroids.
metabolic effect of different hormones i.e insulin, glucagon, epinephrine and cortisol with their short introduction, structures, biosynthesis, mechanism of action and individual action on carbohydrate , lipid and protein metabolism.
metabolic effect of different hormones i.e insulin, glucagon, epinephrine and cortisol with their short introduction, structures, biosynthesis, mechanism of action and individual action on carbohydrate , lipid and protein metabolism.
FEASIBILITY STUDY OF TREATMENT OF EFFLUENT FROM A BULK DRUG MANUFACTURING IND...Journal For Research
A study has been carried out on aerobic biological treatment of a bulk drug industrial effluent which is highly acidic in nature and shows high value of BOD5 (≈ 36000 mg/l), COD (≈ 84000 mg/l). Chemical treatment conducted for neutralizing the pH followed by biological treatment using a lab-scale reactor with acclimatized bacterial consortia isolated from natural soil has confirmed its feasibility for biological treatment. About 99% removal of COD from starting value of around 8000 mg/l has been achieved. The COD value in different hydraulic retention time (HRT) has been brought down to less than 100 mg/l in treated effluent, showing high removal of dissolved organics by aerobic biological treatment.
Pharmacokinetics - drug absorption, drug distribution, drug metabolism, drug ...http://neigrihms.gov.in/
A power point presentation on general aspects of Pharmacokinetics suitable for undergraduate medical students beginning to study Pharmacology. Also suitable for Post Graduate students of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences.
This is a simple powerpoint presentation about vitamins. Done by year 1 medical students at the University of Science and Technology, Sana'a, Republic of Yemen. (2007/2008)
1-ENDOCRINOLOGY-Part-I.PPT PART OF THE HUMAN BODYbarilloanfhal
What Is Endocrinology?
The Basics
Endocrinology is a branch of medicine that deals with the endocrine system, which controls the hormones in your body. An endocrinologist is a physician who specializes in the field of endocrinology. Endocrinologists diagnose and treat a wide range of conditions affecting the endocrine system, including diabetes mellitus, thyroid disorders, osteoporosis, growth hormone deficiency, infertility, cholesterol problems, hypertension (high blood pressure), obesity and more.
How the Endocrine System Works
The endocrine system’s glands and organs release hormones that regulate a number of vital functions of our body. These glands include the hypothalamus, pineal body, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas, testes and ovaries.
The hormones in your body all have specific jobs to complete. There are up to 40 different hormones circulating in your blood at any time. Once released into the bloodstream, a hormone travels throughout the body until it reaches its specific destination(s) to perform its function. These destinations, called targets, can be located either on other endocrine glands or on other organs and tissues in the body.
When a hormone reaches its target, it tells that part of your body what work to do, when to do it and for how long. Hormones are often referred to as the “messengers” because they help different parts of the body communicate. Overall, they are involved in many different processes in the body, including:
Blood sugar control
Growth and development
Metabolism (the process of getting and maintaining energy in the body)
Regulation of heart rate and blood pressure
Sexual development and function
Reproduction
Mood
What Happens When the Endocrine System Does Not Work?
Hormonal function is a balancing act. Too much or too little of one hormone can have an impact on the release of other hormones. If this hormonal imbalance occurs, some of your body’s systems will not work properly.
These imbalances can often be corrected by the body itself. Your body has built-in mechanisms to keep track of and respond to any changes in hormone levels to bring them back to normal and restore the balance.
Sometimes, however, this system goes wrong and there can be a problem that the body can’t fix itself. In this case, a primary care physician will refer you to an endocrinologist, who is an expert in treating frequently complex (and often chronic) conditions which can involve several different systems within the body.
The Anatomy of the Endocrine System
The endocrine system is made up of a collection of glands. Each gland has a specific function in the body, and all these glands work together to regulate vital functions of our body.
Adrenal glands
Located just above the kidneys, adrenal glands are responsible for the secretion of several hormones which maintain the body’s salt and water balance that in turn regulate blood pressure, help the body cope with and respond to stress, regulate body meta
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,sisternakatoto
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Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
2. Recommended Books.
• Guyton & Hall
• W.F Ganong
• Basic Medical Biochemistry, by Dawn.B.Marks & Allan D
Marks., Ch No 43 Section No III., Pg No 667.
• Text Book of Medical Biochemistry, by MN Chatterjea & Rana
Shindle., Fourth Edition, Chapter No 27, Section No III, Page No
494.
3. MOLECULAR ENDOCRINOLOGY
• Endocrinology is the Branch of BioMedical sciences which deals with the Synthesis/Secretion/
Biological Effects of Hormones on biological system.
• Branch of Physiology which deals with the study of endocrine glands, hormones, their
receptors, the intracellular signaling pathways and the diseases associated with them.
• What are hormones?
• Where do they come from?
• Major endocrine glands?
• Physiological processes controlled by hormones?
• The Glands/specialized tissues which are responsible for synthesis and secretion of Hormones called
“ENDOCRINE GLANDS”
• HORMONE, is a chemical substance which is produced in one part of body, enters in the circulation, carried
to distant target organs/tissues to modify their structures and functions.
6. Characteristics of HORMONE
• HORMONE, a catalyst, resemble with enzyme.
• HORMONE, required only in small amount.
• HORMONE, not used up during the reaction.
• HORMONE, produced by an organ act to other
• HORMONE, secreted in circulation before act.
• HORMONE, are not protein all the time.
• HORMONE, are either proteins/G.P/Peptides
amino acids/Steroids.
8. HORMONE
PROTEIN/PEPTIDE
• These are either large protein molecules or
medium/small sized peptides.
• Insulin & Glucagon
• Parathrombin & Calcitonine
• Pituitary Hormones.
9. HORMONE
AMINO ACID DERIVATIVES
• These are derived from amino Acids e.g.
Tyrosine derived Hormones.
• Epnipherine & Nor-Epinephrine.
• Thyroid Hormones. (T3 & T4)
• Tri-iodo-thyronine
• Tetra-iodo-Thyronine
10. HORMONE
STEROIDS
• These are Steroid in nature such as;
• Adrenocorticoid Hormones,
• Androgens.
• Estrogens.
• Progesterone.
11. CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES
(Based on their action)
• Hormones regulating Hypothalamus/Pituitary Glands.
e.g. CRH (Corticotrophin Releasing Hormone) TRH (Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone)
GnRH (Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone)
LH (Luteinizing Hormone) FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone)
• Hormones regulating Fuel Metabolism.
e.g. Insulin/Glucagon/Somatostatin/Epiephrine/Nor-Epiephrine/
Glucocorticoides/T3-T4.
• Hormones regulating Na+ & Ca++ Levels
e.g. Anti-Diuretic Hormone/Aldosterone/ANP/Angiotensin II/III.
• Hormones regulating Growth/Differentiation & Reproduction
e.g. Growth Hormone/Insulin like growth
factor/Estrogen/Progesterone/Testosterone.
12. The Cell Membrane Phospholipid Second Messenger System &
The Intracellular Calcium-Calmodulin Second Messenger System
Chemical Mediator
{Hormone/Drug/NT’s}
BIOLOGICAL RESPONSE(S)
Tertiary Messengers
PIP2
Endoplasmic
Reticulum.
Angiotension –II/
Catecholamine, GH, Oxytocin, GnRH
Text
Book of
Medical
Physiology
11th ed,
Guyton & Hall
Ch 74,
Pg No 915
IP3= Inositol Triphosphate
DAG = DiAcyl Glycerol
AA = Archidonic Acid.
Recognition &
Hormone
Release
Signal Generation
Biological Effects.
13. Mechanism of action of water-soluble Hormones
The Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Human Growth hormone/TSH/ACTH/FSH/LH Prolactin.
1st Mes
2nt Mes
Response
Text Book of
Medical Physiology
11th, Guyton & Hall
Ch 74, Pg No 913
cAMP = Cytoplasmic Adenosine Mono-phosphate.
14. Mechanism of Action for lipid-soluble or steroid Endocrine hormones
Lipid-Soluble Hormones Aldosterone Calcitriol Testosterone Estrogen
Progesterone T3 & T4
16. Interacting with Surface Receptor.
• RECEPTOR
Receptor is macro-molecular structure present either on cell
membrane/nuclear membrane, responsible to interact with
chemical messengers and or to exhibit response.
Chemical messenger are of two types;
Endogenous Chemical Messenger
1) Neurotransmitter (s)
2) Hormone (s)
Exogenous Chemical Messenger
Drugs (Chemical Agents/Biological Agents)
17. Interacting with Surface Receptor.
Types of Receptor (s)
RECEPTORS
LIGAND GATED ION CHANNELS/IONOTROPIC
G-PROTEIN COUPLED /METABOTROPIC
KINASE LINKED
NUCLEAR
18. Interacting with Surface Receptor.
(Conti)
• As per Heller Hypothesis there are certain molecules which can’t
cross the target’s cell membrane.
• The hormones thus bind with their surface receptors present on the
plasma membrane.
• They cause rapid secondary metabolic changes in the tissues.
• PROTEIN HORMONES (Insulin/Glucagon)
Epinepherine/Nor-Epinephrine proceed through surface
linked Recptor.
19. Interacting with Nuclear Receptor.
• The Steroid Hormones act mostly by Nuclear action.
• They change the “Transcription rate” of specific gene in the nuclear
DNA.
• Mechanism of Steroid Hormones (Testosterone/Estrogen)
• The steroid Hormone cross cell membrane and attach with Cytosolic
Protein “Heat Shock Protein 90” . (THE IN-PUT)
• This “SH-HSP/90-complex” thus cross nuclear membrane.
• This “SH” is separated out from HSP/90 and attach over the
“Hormone Responsive Element (HRE)” of the DNA.
• The induced/steroid Hormone controlled HRE thus, change the
Transcription of specific gene in DNA which ultimately respond as
synthesis of new protein/enzyme etc. (THE OUT-PUT)
20. Stimulation of Enzyme synthesis at
Ribosomal Level.
• The activity of the ribosome at the level of translation of
genetic information is carried by the m-RNA for the
synthesis of certain proteins/enzymes.
• The Growth Hormone act directly on the Ribosomal
Level and augmented the final outcome of protein (for
structural development) and enzymes (for accelerated
metabolic fate).
21. Direct Activation at Enzyme Level
• Although the direct effect of a hormone on a pure
enzyme is difficult to demonstrate.
• But the treatment of the intact animal or isolated tissues
with some hormones results in a change of enzyme
activity, not related with “de-novo synthesis”
• This hormonal effect occurred rapidly.
22. Role of c.AMP in Hormone Action
▫ The cAMP plays an important role in the mechanism of action of Protein
Hormones.
▫ The Hormone (s) Insulin, Glucoagon, Catecholamine, Parathyroid
Hormones show their effects by influencing the intracellular conc. of
cAMP.
▫ The cAMP level is mediated through;
▫ Tri-Meric NUcleotide-Regulatory Complex.
(Alpha-Beta-Gama subunits)
▫ “α_GTP - Adenylate Cyclase system”
▫ The cAMP level increased with Glucagon (As αs_GTP complex activates
adenylate cyclase) and decreased with insulin.(As αi_GTP complex in-
activates adenylate cyclase)
23. Role of cGMP in Hormone Action
▫ The cGMP plays an important role in the mechanism of action of
Growth Hormone
▫ The cGMP level is mediated through;
▫ Tri-Meric NUcleotide-Regulatory Complex.
(Alpha-Beta-Gama subunits)
▫ “α_GTP – Guanylate Cyclase system”
▫ The cGMP level is mediated through
“αs_GTP – Guanylate Cyclase system”
“αi_GTP – Guanylate Cyclase system”
24. Role of IP3 (Poly-Phosphoinositol) in
Hormone Action.
▫ The IP3 level is mediated through;
▫ Tri-Meric NUcleotide-Regulatory Complex.
and
“α_GTP – Phospholipase C system”
The resultant IP3 causes mobilization of Ca++
from Cytosolic Resiviors e.g. R/E/R &
Mitochondria.
Ca++ act as Tertiary Messenger.
25. Role of DAG (Di-acyl-glycerol) in Hormone action.
▫ The DAG level is mediated through;
▫ Tri-Meric NUcleotide-Regulatory Complex. and
“α_GTP – Poly Phospho Inositol System”
The resultant DAG activates Ca++ Phosphatidyl
Serine dependant Protein Kinase C, located inner cell
Membrane
Ca++ act as Tertiary Messenger.
26. Role of Ca++ in Hormone action.
• Ca++ (The Third Messenger)
▫ Signaling for the Hormone action.
▫ Involve in Phospholipase A2. activity.
▫ Involve in Activation of Adenylate Cyclase system for
cAMP.
▫ Involve in Activation of Guanylate Cyclase system for
cGMP.
▫ Involve in “Ca++ Phosphatidyl Serine dependant
Protein Kinase C” for DAG.
▫ Glycogen Synthesis.
27. Role of Phosphorylation of
Tyrosine Kinase in Hormone action.
• Tyrosine Kinase coupled with Insulin/Growth
Hormone/Prolactin/Oxytocin.
• Phosphorylation of Tyrosine Residue of specific
cellular proteins produce certain metabolic
changes.
28. FACTORS REGULATING HORMONE ACTION.
THE following are the factors influencing on hormone action.
• Rate of synthesis and secretion.
• Circulatory pick up of the hormone.
• Hormones specific receptor/enzymes, differ from tissue to tissue.
• Ultimate degradation of the hormone (by liver/kidney)
29. REGULATION OF HORMONE SECRETION.
• Hormone secretion is strictly under the control
of following mechanism (s).
▫ The Neuro-Endocrinal Control Mechanism.
▫ The Feed-back Control Mechanism.
▫ The Endocrine Rhythms.
▫ The Ultradian Rhythm.
30. Hormone Transport in the Blood,
Water-soluble hormones (peptides and catecholamines
are dissolved in the plasma and transported from their sites of
synthesis to target tissues, where they diffuse out of the
capillaries, into the interstitial fluid, and ultimately to target
cells.
Steroid and thyroid hormones, in contrast, circulate in
the blood mainly bound to plasma proteins. Usually less than 10 per cent of steroid or thyroid
hormones in the plasma exist free in solution. For example, more than 99 per cent of
the thyroxine in the blood is bound to plasma proteins. However,
protein-bound hormones cannot easily diffuse across the capillaries and
gain access to their target cells and are therefore biologically inactive
until they dissociate from plasma proteins. ‘
• The relatively large amounts of hormones bound to proteins serve as reservoirs, replenishing the
concentration of free hormones when they are bound to target receptors or lost from the
circulation.
• Binding of hormones to plasma proteins greatly slows their clearance from the plasma
32. Hormone Metabolism and Excretion,
• “Clearance” of Hormones from the Blood
• Two factors can increase or decrease the concentration of a hormone in the blood.
▫ One of these is the rate of hormone secretion into the blood.
▫ The second is the rate of removal of the hormone from the blood, which is called the
metabolic clearance rate.
▫ This is usually expressed in terms of the number of milliliters of plasma cleared of the
hormone per minute.
• To calculate this clearance rate, one measures
▫ (1) the rate of disappearance of the hormone from the plasma per minute and
▫ (2) the concentration of the hormone in each milliliter of plasma. Then, the
metabolic clearance rate is calculated by the following formula:
• Metabolic clearance rate = Rate of disappearance of hormone from the
plasma/Concentration of hormone in each
milliliter of plasma
33. Hormone Metabolism and Excretion,
• Hormones are “cleared” from the plasma in several
• ways, including
▫ (1) metabolic destruction by the tissues,
▫ (2) binding with the tissues,
▫ (3) excretion by the liver into the bile, and
▫ (4) excretion by the kidneys into the urine.
▫ For certain hormones, a decreased metabolic clearance rate may
cause an excessively high concentration of the hormone in the
circulating body fluids.
▫ For instance, this occurs for several of the steroid hormones when
the liver is diseased, because these hormones are conjugated
mainly in the liver and then “cleared” into the bile.
34. Hormone Metabolism and Excretion,
• Hormones are sometimes degraded at their target cells by enzymatic
processes that cause endocytosis of the cell membrane hormone-receptor
complex; the hormone is then metabolized in the cell, and the receptors are
usually recycled back to the cell membrane.
• Most of the peptide hormones and catecholamines are water soluble and
circulate freely in the blood. They are usually degraded by enzymes in the
blood and tissues and rapidly excreted by the kidneys and liver, thus
remaining in the blood for only a short time.
• For example, the half-life of angiotensin II circulating in the
blood is less than a minute.
• Hormones that are bound to plasma proteins are cleared from the blood at
much slower rates and may remain in the circulation for several hours or
even days.
▫ The half-life of adrenal steroids in the circulation, for example, ranges between
20 and 100 minutes, whereas the half-life of the protein-bound thyroid
hormones may be as long as 1 to 6 days
39. Candidate Hormones,
type of Endocrine Disorders
• Disease b/c Excess of Hormone;
▫ Thyrotoxicosis
• Disease b/c Deficiency or depressed action of
Hormone
▫ Diabetes Mellitus
40. Diabetes Mellitus
• Diabetes mellitus, arguably the most important metabolic
disease of man, is an insulin deficiency state.
• Two principal forms of this disease are recognized:
• Type I or insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus is the result of a
frank deficiency of insulin.
• The onset of this disease typically is in childhood. It is due to
destruction pancreatic B cells, most likely the result of autoimmunity to
one or more components of those cells.
• Many of the acute effects of this disease can be controlled by insulin
replacement therapy.
• Maintaining tight control of blood glucose concentrations by
monitoring, treatment with insulin and dietary management will
minimize the long-term adverse effects of this disorder on blood
vessels, nerves and other organ systems, allowing a healthy life.
41. Diabetes Mellitus (Conti)
• Type II or non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus begins as a
syndrome of insulin resistance.
• That is, target tissues fail to respond appropriately to insulin.
• Typically, the onset of this disease is in adulthood.
• The nature of the defect has been evaluated - in some patients, the insulin
receptor.
• In others, one or more aspects of insulin signaling is defective.
• In others, no defect has been identified.
▫ Either inability to secrete adequate amounts of insulin,
Insulin injections are not useful for therapy. Rather the disease is
controlled through dietary therapy and hypoglycemic agents.
43. The Worsening Epidemic
of Obesity and Diabetes
31% obese (BMI 30), increase from 23%
▫ 65% overweight (BMI 25), increase from
56%
▫ 4.7% extremely obese (BMI 40), increase
from 2.9%
▫ No physical activity in 27%!
▫ No regular activity in additional 28%
▫ Each 1-kg increase in weight =
4.5%–9% increase in risk of diabetes
How can lifestyle changes be implemented long term?
NHANES=National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.
44. Normal
Type 2 Diabetes IRS/MS/XS Death
Courtesy of Wilfred Y. Fujimoto, MD.
Visceral Fat Distribution:
Normal vs Type 2 Diabetes
46. Insulin Resistance: Receptor and Postreceptor Defects
Peripheral tissues
(skeletal muscle)
Increased glucose
Pancreas
Liver
Impaired insulin secretion
Increased glucose
production
X
Insufficient glucose
disposal
Causes of Hyperglycemia
in Type 2 Diabetes
47. Insulin Resistance Syndrome
The Metabolic Syndrome
The X Syndrome.
• Hyper-insulinemia or excessive insulin secretion
• The Hyper-insulinemia is usually the result of an insulin-secreting
tumor.
• This condition is much less common than diabetes mellitus.
• The high levels of insulin resulting from this condition
▫ May cause the overdose of insulin causes a precipitious drop in blood
glucose concentrations.
▫ The brain becomes starved for energy, leading to the syndrome of
insulin shock, which is acutely life-threatening. Death.
48. Metabolic Syndrome, Insulin Resistance, and Atherosclerosis
MacFarlane S et al. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86:713-718.
Hyperinsulinemia/hyperproinsulinemia
Glucose
intolerance
Increased
triglycerides
Decreased
HDL cholesterol
Increased BP
Endothelial dysfunction
Small, dense
LDL
Atherosclerotic
cardiovascular
disease
Increased
PAI-1
Insulin resistance