This document provides an overview of blending as a unit operation in pharmaceutical manufacturing. It discusses the mechanisms of mixing, including convection, diffusion, and shear. Scale-up considerations are outlined, along with ways to minimize segregation. Methods for assessing powder blend uniformity include sampling and assay testing, with limitations of traditional sampling thieves discussed. Overall, blending is a critical step for ensuring uniform distribution of active and inactive ingredients in pharmaceutical products.
The document describes an octagonal blender with a 2000L capacity. It has an octagonal shape which allows it to process larger volumes of material while occupying less space than similar blenders. It operates at a low speed for gentle blending. Key features include easy wash-in-place cleaning and optional vacuum or bin charging systems. The blender consists of an octagonal shell and drive assembly. It can be used for applications requiring gentle blending of powders or granules.
Mixing is a process where two or more components are brought into close contact with each other. There are different types of mixtures like positive, negative, and neutral mixtures. Mixing of solids is important in pharmaceutical manufacturing to ensure uniformity of ingredients in tablets. The key mechanisms for solid mixing are convective, shear, and diffusive mixing. Factors like particle size and shape can affect solid mixing. Common mixers used include mortar and pestle, ribbon blenders, sigma blade mixers, planetary mixers, and various tumbling mixers. Process parameters like speed and mixing time need to be optimized for different mixers and materials.
This document discusses mixing in industrial processes. It defines mixing as manipulating a heterogeneous system to make it more homogeneous by intermingling two or more separate components. The types of mixing covered include different materials like solids, liquids, and gases. The mechanisms of mixing include shear, diffusive, and convective mixing. Common mixers are tumbling mixers, convective mixers, ribbon blenders, and others. Factors that impact mixing include mixer selection, mixing time, power consumption, and degree of mixing achieved. Agitation is also discussed and compared to mixing.
The document discusses the principles and operation of a ball mill. It describes how a ball mill works by rotating a hollow cylindrical shell partially filled with balls to grind materials by impact and attrition. The grinding medium is the balls, which can be made of steel, stainless steel, or rubber. The document outlines factors that affect grinding efficiency such as feed rate, ball size and weight, and rotation speed relative to critical speed.
This document provides information about mixing in pharmaceutical processes. It defines mixing as a process that combines two or more components so that each particle is in contact with particles of the other ingredients. Ideal mixing occurs when the quantity of materials is the same in all parts of the system. The objectives, types, mechanisms, equipment, and flow patterns involved in liquid and powder mixing are described in detail. Different types of impellers like propellers, turbines, and paddles used for mixing are also explained.
The document discusses hot melt extrusion technology for pharmaceutical applications. It provides an overview of extrusion systems and processes, including different types of extruders and their components. Hot melt extrusion is described as a beneficial processing technology for manipulating ingredients to create materials with unique properties. Key benefits of hot melt extrusion for pharmaceuticals include enhanced solubility, bioavailability and specific drug release characteristics of active pharmaceutical ingredients. Process parameters and considerations for optimizing hot melt extrusion are also reviewed.
The document discusses various granulation techniques used in pharmaceutical manufacturing. It begins with an introduction to granules and granulation. It then covers different granulation methods including dry granulation, wet granulation and advanced techniques like fluid bed granulation, extrusion-spheronization, steam granulation and melt granulation. The document provides details on the process, equipment used, advantages and disadvantages of each method. It aims to explain why granulation is important and the various ways it can be achieved.
This document provides an overview of blending as a unit operation in pharmaceutical manufacturing. It discusses the mechanisms of mixing, including convection, diffusion, and shear. Scale-up considerations are outlined, along with ways to minimize segregation. Methods for assessing powder blend uniformity include sampling and assay testing, with limitations of traditional sampling thieves discussed. Overall, blending is a critical step for ensuring uniform distribution of active and inactive ingredients in pharmaceutical products.
The document describes an octagonal blender with a 2000L capacity. It has an octagonal shape which allows it to process larger volumes of material while occupying less space than similar blenders. It operates at a low speed for gentle blending. Key features include easy wash-in-place cleaning and optional vacuum or bin charging systems. The blender consists of an octagonal shell and drive assembly. It can be used for applications requiring gentle blending of powders or granules.
Mixing is a process where two or more components are brought into close contact with each other. There are different types of mixtures like positive, negative, and neutral mixtures. Mixing of solids is important in pharmaceutical manufacturing to ensure uniformity of ingredients in tablets. The key mechanisms for solid mixing are convective, shear, and diffusive mixing. Factors like particle size and shape can affect solid mixing. Common mixers used include mortar and pestle, ribbon blenders, sigma blade mixers, planetary mixers, and various tumbling mixers. Process parameters like speed and mixing time need to be optimized for different mixers and materials.
This document discusses mixing in industrial processes. It defines mixing as manipulating a heterogeneous system to make it more homogeneous by intermingling two or more separate components. The types of mixing covered include different materials like solids, liquids, and gases. The mechanisms of mixing include shear, diffusive, and convective mixing. Common mixers are tumbling mixers, convective mixers, ribbon blenders, and others. Factors that impact mixing include mixer selection, mixing time, power consumption, and degree of mixing achieved. Agitation is also discussed and compared to mixing.
The document discusses the principles and operation of a ball mill. It describes how a ball mill works by rotating a hollow cylindrical shell partially filled with balls to grind materials by impact and attrition. The grinding medium is the balls, which can be made of steel, stainless steel, or rubber. The document outlines factors that affect grinding efficiency such as feed rate, ball size and weight, and rotation speed relative to critical speed.
This document provides information about mixing in pharmaceutical processes. It defines mixing as a process that combines two or more components so that each particle is in contact with particles of the other ingredients. Ideal mixing occurs when the quantity of materials is the same in all parts of the system. The objectives, types, mechanisms, equipment, and flow patterns involved in liquid and powder mixing are described in detail. Different types of impellers like propellers, turbines, and paddles used for mixing are also explained.
The document discusses hot melt extrusion technology for pharmaceutical applications. It provides an overview of extrusion systems and processes, including different types of extruders and their components. Hot melt extrusion is described as a beneficial processing technology for manipulating ingredients to create materials with unique properties. Key benefits of hot melt extrusion for pharmaceuticals include enhanced solubility, bioavailability and specific drug release characteristics of active pharmaceutical ingredients. Process parameters and considerations for optimizing hot melt extrusion are also reviewed.
The document discusses various granulation techniques used in pharmaceutical manufacturing. It begins with an introduction to granules and granulation. It then covers different granulation methods including dry granulation, wet granulation and advanced techniques like fluid bed granulation, extrusion-spheronization, steam granulation and melt granulation. The document provides details on the process, equipment used, advantages and disadvantages of each method. It aims to explain why granulation is important and the various ways it can be achieved.
This document discusses various types of equipment used to disperse systems. It describes mixers like propeller, turbine, anchor, and scraped surface agitators. It also discusses high speed dispersers, rotor-stator mixers, combination mixers, in-line mixers, and non-mechanical methods. Fine particle size reduction equipment like triple roll mills, ball mills, and bead mills are also covered. The document provides details on the working, applications, advantages and limitations of each type of dispersion equipment.
The document discusses the angle of repose, which is the maximum slope angle of non-cohesive granular materials before they collapse. It can be measured using methods like the tilting box method, fixed funnel method, and revolving cylinder method. Factors like particle size, moisture content, and measurement method can affect the measured angle of repose. Knowing the angle of repose is important for safely transporting and storing bulk materials.
High shear granulation is a shaping process for granulation that has been enhanced for application in the pharmaceutical industry. A binder liquid is fed to the powder particles in a closed container with blending tools and a chopper. Dense granules are formed through the liquid and solid bridges that result.
Granulation is the process of binding powder particles together to form larger multi-particle granules. It is done to improve powder flow properties, enhance content uniformity, and eliminate segregation issues. The main granulation techniques are wet granulation, dry granulation, and direct compression. Wet granulation involves mixing powders with a liquid binder to form granules, then drying the granules. Dry granulation compresses powders directly into tablets. Direct compression tablets are made by compressing blended powders without granulation. Granulation improves flow, content uniformity, and compression properties.
Hot melt extrusion is a process that converts raw materials into a uniform product by forcing it through a die under controlled conditions. It can be used to create solid dispersions of drugs to improve solubility and bioavailability. The key materials used are active pharmaceutical ingredients, polymers, and additives. Extruders provide mixing and agitation to uniformly disperse ingredients. The extruded material can be used to produce various dosage forms like tablets, pellets, and implants after characterization. Hot melt extrusion is an emerging drug delivery technique for solubility enhancement and modified drug release.
This document summarizes a presentation on wet granulation equipment. It describes the process of wet granulation which involves adding a liquid solution to powders to form granules. It then discusses various types of equipment used in wet granulation including rapid mixing granulators, fluidized bed dryers, vibratory sifters, multi mills, and double cone blenders. For each type of equipment, it provides details on its working principles, components, parameters to control, and advantages.
This document summarizes different types of viscometers used to measure viscosity. It discusses capillary viscometers like Ostwald's viscometer which measures flow through a capillary tube. Falling and rising body viscometers like the Hoeppler ball viscometer measure the terminal velocity of a ball. Rotational viscometers like the cup and bob viscometer apply shear between two surfaces, one stationary and one rotating. Other viscometers described include cone and plate, vibrational, bubble, and oscillating viscometers. The document provides formulas, working principles, advantages and disadvantages of various viscometer types used to characterize fluids.
Granulation is the process of binding particles together to form larger granules. There are two main types: dry granulation which uses no liquid, and wet granulation which uses a liquid binding solution. Wet granulation methods include fluidized bed granulation where granulation and drying occur together, tumbling granulation using drums or pans where particles are set in motion by tumbling forces, and mixer-granulators which use high shear mixing to form agglomerates. Key steps in wet granulation are wetting, nucleation and binder distribution, consolidation and growth, and attrition and breakage. Granule size and properties depend on the specific granulation equipment used.
Size reduction is a process of reducing large solid unit masses, coarse particles or fine particles.
Size reduction may be achieved by two methods:
1] Precipitation
2] Mechanical process
1] Precipitation method: Substance is dissolve in appropriate solvent.
2] Mechanical process: Mechanical force is introduce by using different equipments like ball mill, colloid mill etc.
“Pellets Technology: Special focus on Wruster Coating and Extruder
spheronization”
Basic introduction, various methods of pellets technology, Wruster process, equipments, various process parameters and equipment parameters, Extrusion-Spheronization, Equipments, process and equipment parameters
This document provides guidance on mixing dry particulate solids. It discusses key differences between mixing solids versus liquids and gases. Namely, solids have no diffusion, particle properties can cause non-random movement, and particles are much larger than molecules. The document also covers qualitative and quantitative ways to assess mixture quality, such as scale of segregation and variance. It provides equations to calculate the theoretical best mixture quality based on formulation and scale of scrutiny. Selection of an appropriate mixer depends on whether the solids are free-flowing or cohesive. Sampling methods are important to properly assess mixture quality.
This presentation gives brief information on pelletization, significance of pelletization. Information also cover on formulation aspects of pellets and different existing methods of production of pellets.
Mixing is a general term that includes stirring, beating, blending, binding, creaming, whipping, and folding. In mixing, two or more ingredients are evenly dispersed in one another until they become one product.
This document discusses different types of mixing equipment used in pharmaceutical engineering. It describes turbines, which are used for mixing very viscous liquids and slurries. It also discusses vortex formation and how to prevent it. Additionally, it summarizes return flow with draft tubes, air jet mixers, jet mixers, and flow/line/pipe mixers. Air jet mixers use compressed air bubbles to lift and mix liquids, while jet mixers use high velocity liquid jets. Flow mixers rely on pumping liquid through a pipe or chamber to achieve mixing.
The document provides information on spray drying processes. It discusses that spray drying is a method to produce dry powders from liquids or slurries by rapidly drying with hot gas. Key aspects of spray drying include atomizing the feed into droplets, contacting the droplets with drying gas, evaporation of moisture from the droplets, and separating the dried powder. Different types of spray dryers and factors like flow patterns, atomization methods, and applications are described.
Pharmaceutical Dryers. Dryers are used in a variety of industries, such as the food processing, pharmaceutical, paper, pollution control and agricultural sectors. ... Direct dryers convectively heat a product through direct contact with heated air, gas or a combusted gas product.
This document discusses tablet coating and film coating processes. It provides details on common types of film formers/polymers used in coatings including hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) and povidone. The document also discusses plasticizers, solvents, colorants, and other coating components. Finally, it describes the two main methods for film coating - pan-pour and pan-spray coating, and lists important process variables that must be controlled for successful film coating.
This document discusses mixing in pharmaceutical manufacturing. It defines mixing as a process that randomizes particles within a system. The objectives of mixing include achieving a physical mixture, promoting chemical reactions, and heat and mass transfer. Mixing can involve solids, liquids, or semi-solids and occurs through mechanisms like convection, shear, and diffusion. Proper mixing is important to ensure a homogenous product, while segregation should be avoided. Various mixing equipment and considerations for mixer selection are also outlined.
Granulation is a process that involves sticking small particles together to form larger, multiparticle structures called granules. This is commonly done in the pharmaceutical industry to produce granules that will later be used in tablet or capsule manufacturing. There are two main types of granulation - wet granulation, which uses a liquid to bind particles together, and dry granulation, which uses pressure without a liquid. Wet granulation is more common and involves mixing powder particles with a liquid and then forcing the wet mass through a sieve to form wet granules that are then dried. Shear granulators are a common type of granulator used for wet granulation that uses rotating blades to force the wet mass through a sieve to produce granules of a
This was my pharmaceutics presentation for mixing. Provides definitions, mechanism, types of mixers etc.
P.S: I am not the sole presenter. Ideas are from my two other colleagues as well.
How to Use the GBHE Mixing Guides
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 THE MIXING GUIDES
4.1 Mixing Guides
4.2 GBHE Mixing and Agitation Manual
5 DEVICE SELECTION
6 MIXING QUESTIONNAIRE
6.1 What is being mixed?
6.2 Why is it being mixed?
6.3 How is it to be mixed?
6.4 Is Heat Transfer Important?
6.5 Is Mixing Time Important?
6.6 Is Inventory Important?
6.7 Is Subsequent Phase Separation Important?
6.8 What Quantities?
6.9 What are the Selection Criteria?
6.10 What Data are required?
7 BASICS
7.1 Bulk Movement
7.2 Shear and Elongation
7.3 Turbulent Diffusion
7.4 Molecular Diffusion
7.5 Mixing Mechanisms
APPENDICES
A ROTATING MIXING DEVICES
B MIXING DEVICES WITHOUT MOVING PARTS
This document discusses various types of equipment used to disperse systems. It describes mixers like propeller, turbine, anchor, and scraped surface agitators. It also discusses high speed dispersers, rotor-stator mixers, combination mixers, in-line mixers, and non-mechanical methods. Fine particle size reduction equipment like triple roll mills, ball mills, and bead mills are also covered. The document provides details on the working, applications, advantages and limitations of each type of dispersion equipment.
The document discusses the angle of repose, which is the maximum slope angle of non-cohesive granular materials before they collapse. It can be measured using methods like the tilting box method, fixed funnel method, and revolving cylinder method. Factors like particle size, moisture content, and measurement method can affect the measured angle of repose. Knowing the angle of repose is important for safely transporting and storing bulk materials.
High shear granulation is a shaping process for granulation that has been enhanced for application in the pharmaceutical industry. A binder liquid is fed to the powder particles in a closed container with blending tools and a chopper. Dense granules are formed through the liquid and solid bridges that result.
Granulation is the process of binding powder particles together to form larger multi-particle granules. It is done to improve powder flow properties, enhance content uniformity, and eliminate segregation issues. The main granulation techniques are wet granulation, dry granulation, and direct compression. Wet granulation involves mixing powders with a liquid binder to form granules, then drying the granules. Dry granulation compresses powders directly into tablets. Direct compression tablets are made by compressing blended powders without granulation. Granulation improves flow, content uniformity, and compression properties.
Hot melt extrusion is a process that converts raw materials into a uniform product by forcing it through a die under controlled conditions. It can be used to create solid dispersions of drugs to improve solubility and bioavailability. The key materials used are active pharmaceutical ingredients, polymers, and additives. Extruders provide mixing and agitation to uniformly disperse ingredients. The extruded material can be used to produce various dosage forms like tablets, pellets, and implants after characterization. Hot melt extrusion is an emerging drug delivery technique for solubility enhancement and modified drug release.
This document summarizes a presentation on wet granulation equipment. It describes the process of wet granulation which involves adding a liquid solution to powders to form granules. It then discusses various types of equipment used in wet granulation including rapid mixing granulators, fluidized bed dryers, vibratory sifters, multi mills, and double cone blenders. For each type of equipment, it provides details on its working principles, components, parameters to control, and advantages.
This document summarizes different types of viscometers used to measure viscosity. It discusses capillary viscometers like Ostwald's viscometer which measures flow through a capillary tube. Falling and rising body viscometers like the Hoeppler ball viscometer measure the terminal velocity of a ball. Rotational viscometers like the cup and bob viscometer apply shear between two surfaces, one stationary and one rotating. Other viscometers described include cone and plate, vibrational, bubble, and oscillating viscometers. The document provides formulas, working principles, advantages and disadvantages of various viscometer types used to characterize fluids.
Granulation is the process of binding particles together to form larger granules. There are two main types: dry granulation which uses no liquid, and wet granulation which uses a liquid binding solution. Wet granulation methods include fluidized bed granulation where granulation and drying occur together, tumbling granulation using drums or pans where particles are set in motion by tumbling forces, and mixer-granulators which use high shear mixing to form agglomerates. Key steps in wet granulation are wetting, nucleation and binder distribution, consolidation and growth, and attrition and breakage. Granule size and properties depend on the specific granulation equipment used.
Size reduction is a process of reducing large solid unit masses, coarse particles or fine particles.
Size reduction may be achieved by two methods:
1] Precipitation
2] Mechanical process
1] Precipitation method: Substance is dissolve in appropriate solvent.
2] Mechanical process: Mechanical force is introduce by using different equipments like ball mill, colloid mill etc.
“Pellets Technology: Special focus on Wruster Coating and Extruder
spheronization”
Basic introduction, various methods of pellets technology, Wruster process, equipments, various process parameters and equipment parameters, Extrusion-Spheronization, Equipments, process and equipment parameters
This document provides guidance on mixing dry particulate solids. It discusses key differences between mixing solids versus liquids and gases. Namely, solids have no diffusion, particle properties can cause non-random movement, and particles are much larger than molecules. The document also covers qualitative and quantitative ways to assess mixture quality, such as scale of segregation and variance. It provides equations to calculate the theoretical best mixture quality based on formulation and scale of scrutiny. Selection of an appropriate mixer depends on whether the solids are free-flowing or cohesive. Sampling methods are important to properly assess mixture quality.
This presentation gives brief information on pelletization, significance of pelletization. Information also cover on formulation aspects of pellets and different existing methods of production of pellets.
Mixing is a general term that includes stirring, beating, blending, binding, creaming, whipping, and folding. In mixing, two or more ingredients are evenly dispersed in one another until they become one product.
This document discusses different types of mixing equipment used in pharmaceutical engineering. It describes turbines, which are used for mixing very viscous liquids and slurries. It also discusses vortex formation and how to prevent it. Additionally, it summarizes return flow with draft tubes, air jet mixers, jet mixers, and flow/line/pipe mixers. Air jet mixers use compressed air bubbles to lift and mix liquids, while jet mixers use high velocity liquid jets. Flow mixers rely on pumping liquid through a pipe or chamber to achieve mixing.
The document provides information on spray drying processes. It discusses that spray drying is a method to produce dry powders from liquids or slurries by rapidly drying with hot gas. Key aspects of spray drying include atomizing the feed into droplets, contacting the droplets with drying gas, evaporation of moisture from the droplets, and separating the dried powder. Different types of spray dryers and factors like flow patterns, atomization methods, and applications are described.
Pharmaceutical Dryers. Dryers are used in a variety of industries, such as the food processing, pharmaceutical, paper, pollution control and agricultural sectors. ... Direct dryers convectively heat a product through direct contact with heated air, gas or a combusted gas product.
This document discusses tablet coating and film coating processes. It provides details on common types of film formers/polymers used in coatings including hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) and povidone. The document also discusses plasticizers, solvents, colorants, and other coating components. Finally, it describes the two main methods for film coating - pan-pour and pan-spray coating, and lists important process variables that must be controlled for successful film coating.
This document discusses mixing in pharmaceutical manufacturing. It defines mixing as a process that randomizes particles within a system. The objectives of mixing include achieving a physical mixture, promoting chemical reactions, and heat and mass transfer. Mixing can involve solids, liquids, or semi-solids and occurs through mechanisms like convection, shear, and diffusion. Proper mixing is important to ensure a homogenous product, while segregation should be avoided. Various mixing equipment and considerations for mixer selection are also outlined.
Granulation is a process that involves sticking small particles together to form larger, multiparticle structures called granules. This is commonly done in the pharmaceutical industry to produce granules that will later be used in tablet or capsule manufacturing. There are two main types of granulation - wet granulation, which uses a liquid to bind particles together, and dry granulation, which uses pressure without a liquid. Wet granulation is more common and involves mixing powder particles with a liquid and then forcing the wet mass through a sieve to form wet granules that are then dried. Shear granulators are a common type of granulator used for wet granulation that uses rotating blades to force the wet mass through a sieve to produce granules of a
This was my pharmaceutics presentation for mixing. Provides definitions, mechanism, types of mixers etc.
P.S: I am not the sole presenter. Ideas are from my two other colleagues as well.
How to Use the GBHE Mixing Guides
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 THE MIXING GUIDES
4.1 Mixing Guides
4.2 GBHE Mixing and Agitation Manual
5 DEVICE SELECTION
6 MIXING QUESTIONNAIRE
6.1 What is being mixed?
6.2 Why is it being mixed?
6.3 How is it to be mixed?
6.4 Is Heat Transfer Important?
6.5 Is Mixing Time Important?
6.6 Is Inventory Important?
6.7 Is Subsequent Phase Separation Important?
6.8 What Quantities?
6.9 What are the Selection Criteria?
6.10 What Data are required?
7 BASICS
7.1 Bulk Movement
7.2 Shear and Elongation
7.3 Turbulent Diffusion
7.4 Molecular Diffusion
7.5 Mixing Mechanisms
APPENDICES
A ROTATING MIXING DEVICES
B MIXING DEVICES WITHOUT MOVING PARTS
The document discusses various types of sedimentation tanks and filters used in water treatment. It describes quiescent sedimentation tanks, continuous sedimentation tanks including horizontal and vertical flow types. It also discusses the process of sedimentation with coagulation including methods of coagulant feeding, mixing and flocculation. Slow sand filters and rapid sand filters are described and compared. Pressure filters are also introduced. The document covers various steps in water treatment like disinfection using chlorination and water softening methods.
This document discusses some of the challenges libraries face with new digital materials like ebooks. It addresses issues like bibliographic control, classification, findability, and determining relationships between digital texts. It also examines myths around ebooks, barriers teens face in using them, and models for ebook services in libraries. Concerns are raised about remaining print materials, ebook functionality being tied to specific hardware, and fully realizing the potential of digital formats.
Gas - Liquid Reactors
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 Preliminary Equipment Selection
4.2 Equipment for Low Viscosity Liquids
4.3 Equipment for High Viscosity Liquids
5 REACTOR DESIGN
6 ESSENTIAL THEORY
6.1 Rate and Yield Determining Steps
6.2 Chemical and Physical Rates
6.3 Modification for Exothermic and Complex Reactions
6.4 Preliminary Selection of Reactor Type
7 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF REGIME
7.1 Direct Measurement of Reaction Kinetics
7.2 Laboratory Gas-Liquid Reactor Experiments
8 EQUILIBRIUM AND DIFFUSIVITY DATA SOURCES
9 OVERALL EFFECTS
9.1 Liquid Flow Patterns
9.2 Scale of Mixing
9.3 Gas Flow Pattern : Mean Driving Force for Mass Transfer
9.4 Gas-Liquid Reactor Modeling
9.5 Heat Transfer
9.6 Materials of Construction
9.7 Foaming
10 FINAL CHOICE OF REACTOR TYPE
11 SCALE-UP AND SPECIFICATION OF GAS-LIQUID
REACTORS
11.1 Bubble Columns
11.2 Packed Columns
11.3 Trickle Beds
11.4 Plate or Tray Columns
11.5 Spray Columns
11.6 Wiped Film
11.7 Spinning Film Reactors
11.8 Stirred Vessels
11.9 Plunging Jet
11.10 Surface Aerator
11.11 Static Mixers
11.12 Ejectors, Venturis and Orifice Plates
11.13 3-Phase Fluidized Bed
12 BIBLIOGRAPHY
TABLES
1 REGIMES OF GAS-LIQUID MASS TRANSFER WITH ISOTHERMAL CHEMICAL REACTION
2 REGIMES OF GAS-LIQUID MASS TRANSFER IGNORING LARGE EXOTHERMS OR OTHER COMPLICATIONS
3 COMPARATIVE MASS TRANSFER PERFORMANCE OF CONTACTING DEVICES
4 COMPARATIVE MASS TRANSFER DATA
5 CHOICE OF GAS-LIQUID REACTOR TYPE
FIGURES
1 RATE AND YIELD DETERMINING STEPS
2 ENHANCEMENT FACTOR vs HATTA NUMBER
3 ENHANCEMENT FACTOR vs HATTA NUMBER : EFFECT OF THERMAL & OTHER FACTORS
4 REACTORS FOR LIQUID-PHASE KINETICS
MEASUREMENT
5 EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE THE OPERATING
REGIME
6 EXPERIMENTS DETERMINE THE OPERATING REGIME WHERE A SOLID CATALYST IS INVOLVED
7 THE MIXED ZONES IN LOOPS' MODEL FOR STIRRED REACTORS
Mass transfer studies in an agitated vessel with radial axial impeller combin...eSAT Journals
Abstract The effect of radial-axial impeller combination in dual configuration was tested for gas liquid mass transfer coefficient (KLa) and compared with that of dual axial impeller (30º Pitched blade) combination. The trials were conducted at gas rates of 2litre/min to 10litre/min and agitation rates of 180rpm to 360rpm.Good mass transfer coefficient was obtained by replacing the lower axial impeller with a radial impeller. Rushton Turbine and Curved blade (half pipe) impeller were used in replacing the lower axial impeller. Amongst the two radial impellers, curved blade resulted in higher KLa than Rushton Turbine at highest gassing rate tested. About 15-35% and 20-48% increase in KLa was observed by replacing lower pitched blade impeller with Rushton and Curved blade impeller each. The results from the present study shows the capability of replacing lower axial impeller with Radial impeller and retrofitting existing lower Rushton Turbine with Curved blade impeller. Keywords: Mass transfer coefficient, Rushton, Axial, agitated vessel.
How to use the GBHE Reactor Technology Guides
0 INTRODUCTION / PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 BACKGROUND
5 THE DECISION TREE
6 GBHE REACTION ENGINEERING
7 GENERAL ASPECTS OF REACTOR TECHNOLOGY
7.1 Criteria of Reactor Performance
7.2 Factors of Economic Importance
7.3 Physicochemical Mechanisms
8 GENERAL GUIDE TO SELECTION OF REACTOR TYPE AND OPERATION
8.1 Choice of Reactor Type
8.2 Reaction Mechanism and Kinetics
8.3 Thermodynamics
8.4 Other Factors
9 GENERAL REFERENCES AND SOURCES OF
INFORMATION
APPENDICES
A RELATIONSHIP BEWTEEN DEFINED TERMS
FIGURES
1 DECISION TREE
2 RELATIVE YIELDS OF B FOR BATCH (OR PLUG FLOW) AND CST REACTORS
3 REACTOR SURVEY FORM
Control of Continuous Distillation Columns
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF A DISTILLATION COLUMN
5 REGULATORY CONTROL
5.1 Composition Control
5.2 Mass Balance Control
5.3 Design of Feedback Control Systems
5.4 Pressure and Condensation Control
5.5 Reboiler Control
6 DISTURBANCE COMPENSATION
6.1 Feed-forward Control
6.2 Cascade Control
6.3 Internal Reflux Control
7 CONSTRAINT CONTROL
7.1 Override Controls
7.2 Flooding
7.3 Limiting Control
8 MORE ADVANCED TOPICS
8.1 Temperature Position Control
8.2 Inferential Measurement
8.1 Floating Pressure Control
8.2 Model Based Predictive Control
8.1 Control of Side-streams
8.2 Extractive/Azeotropic Systems
9 REFERENCES
TABLES
1 SYMPTOMS OF IMBALANCE AND THE REGULATORY VARIABLES
2 PRACTICAL LINKAGES BETWEEN CONTROL
(P, R, B, C) AND REGULATION VARIABLES
(h, r, d, b, c, v)
3 COMPOSITION REGULATION
4 COMPOSITION REGULATION - VERY SMALL FLOWS
Gas-Solid-Liquid Mixing Systems
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
5 THREE-PHASE MASS TRANSFER WITH CHEMICAL REACTION
6 STIRRED VESSEL DESIGN
6.1 Agitator Design
6.2 Design for Solids Suspension
6.3 Vessel Design
6.4 Gas-Liquid Mass Transfer Coefficient and Surface Area
7 THREE-PHASE FLUIDIZED BEDS
7.1 Gas and Liquid Hold-Up
7.2 Calculation Procedure
7.3 Bubble Size
7.4 Mass Transfer
7.5 Heat Transfer
7.6 Elutriation
8 SLURRY REACTORS
8.1 Gas Rate
8.2 Mass Transfer
9 NOMENCLATURE
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
The document is a process engineering guide from GBH Enterprises that discusses the design of homogeneous reactors. It provides definitions and outlines the key design steps, including determining reaction kinetics, selecting the ideal reactor type based on required residence time and flow pattern, and modeling different reactor configurations. Examples of equipment for gas and liquid phase reactors are also included to aid in the initial selection process.
RAPID MIXER GRANULATOR OR HIGH SHEAR MIXER
THIS MACHINE IS USED FOR WET GRANULATION, YOU CAN PREPARE THE DOUGH AND MILL IT TO WITH THE CHOPPER, THIS IS FASTEST MACHINE FOR
WET GRANULATION. WE CAN MANUFACTURE THIS ACCORDING TO YOUR REQUIREMENT OF BATCH SIZE BUT THE STANDARDS ARE 250,400, 600 LITRES, A LAB MODEL IS ALSO AVAILABLE
Hydrogen Compressors
Engineering Design Guide
1 SCOPE
2 PHYSICAL ROPERTIES
2.1 Data for Pure Hydrogen
2.2 Influence of Impurities
3 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
3.1 Hydrogen from Electrolytic Cells
3.2 Pure Hydrogen
4 DESIGN
4.1 Pulsation
4.2 Bypass
5 TESTING OR COMMISSIONING RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
6 LUBRICATION
7 LAYOUT
8 REFERENCES
FIGURES
1 MOLLIER CHART - HYDROGEN
2 COMPRESSIBILITY CHART
3 NELSON DIAGRAM
4 WATER CONTENT IN HYDROGEN FOR OIL-LUBRICATED COMPRESSORS AS GRAMM/M2 SWEPT CYLINDER AREA
1) Recent advances in tablet formulation include new techniques like 3D printing for layered tablets, melt granulation, and foam granulation.
2) New types of tablets have been developed like mouth dissolving tablets, microtablets, and fast-melting tablets using plastic granules.
3) Automation of tablet production equipment and new tablet printing machines that can print up to 750,000 tablets per hour with in-line verification have also been introduced.
Mixing is defined as reducing inhomogeneity to achieve a desired process result, where the inhomogeneity can be of concentration, phase, or temperature. Agitation accomplishes mixing of phases and enhances mass and heat transfer between phases and external surfaces. Basic design factors for mixing include impellers, vessel dimensions, impeller placement, and operating parameters like speed. Mixing occurs through distribution, which transports materials throughout the vessel via bulk currents, and dispersion, which facilitates rapid transfer through the creation of eddies down to the Kolmogorov scale of mixing. The mixing time is considered the time for the concentration to differ from the final concentration by less than 10% after initial segregation.
1. Agitation involves inducing motion within a material while mixing distributes components randomly.
2. Mixing operations involve various combinations of gases, liquids, and solids and may require agitation to enhance mass and heat transfer between phases.
3. Effective agitation and mixing depends on factors like the impeller type, liquid properties, and vessel design which influence flow patterns within the vessel.
physics of tablet compression by Avinash HamreGanesh Pawar
This document discusses the physics of tablet compression. It describes the key mechanisms involved in the tablet compression process, including particle rearrangement, deformation, fragmentation, bonding, and deformation of the solid body. The compression process involves the application of pressure to powder, which first causes particles to rearrange into closer packing structures before deformation and fragmentation occur at higher pressures. Bonding between particles is explained by mechanical interlocking and intermolecular theories. Finally, further pressure leads to deformation of the consolidated solid tablet before it is ejected from the die.
Suspensions Processing Guide - Basic Principles & Test MethodsGerard B. Hawkins
This document provides an overview of methods for assessing the compressive strength of sediments and cakes formed during solid-liquid separation processes. It discusses defining and measuring the compressive yield stress of the solid phase, which characterizes its resistance to compression. A key method involves centrifuging samples at varying speeds and measuring sediment heights to obtain the yield stress as a function of solids concentration. Alternative approaches involve directly measuring pressure vs concentration during filtration or indirectly estimating the yield stress from measurements of shear modulus. Understanding the compressive strength enables better design, selection and scale-up of separation processes.
Filtration
0 INTRODUCTION
1 The Theory Underlying Filtration Processes
1.1 The Mechanism of Simple Filtration Systems
1.1.2 Cake Filtration
1.1.3 Complete Blocking
1.1.4 Standard Blocking
1.1.5 Intermediate Blocking
1.2 Cake Filtration – Models and Mechanisms
1.2.1 Classical Theory for the Permeability of Porous Cakes and Beds
1.2.2 The Rate of Filtration through a Compressible Cake – The Standard Filtration Equation
1.2.3 The Compression or Consolidation of Filter Cakes – Ultimate degree of dewatering
1.2.4 The Rate of Consolidation
1.2.5 Useful Semi-Empirical Relations for Constant Pressure and Constant Rate Cake Filtration
1.2.6 Constant Pressure Filtration
1.2.7 Constant Rate Filtration
1.2.8 Multiphase Theory of Filtration
1.3 Crossflow Filtration
2 The Range and Selection of Filtration Equipment Technology
2.1 Scale
2.2 Solids Recovery, Liquids Clarification or Feed stream Concentration
2.3 Rate of Sedimentation
2.4 Rate of Cake Formation and Drainage
2.5 Batch vs Continuous Operation
2.6 Solids Loading
2.7 Further Processing
2.8 Aseptic or “Hygienic” Operation
2.9 Miscellaneous
2.10 Shear versus Compressional Deformation
2.11 Pressure versus Vacuum
3 Suspension Conditioning Prior to Filtration
3.1 Simple Filtration Aids
3.2 Mechanical Treatments
4 Post-Filtration Treatments and Further Downstream Processing
4.1 Washing
4.1.1 Air-Blowing
4.1.2 Drying
5 Testing and Characterization of Suspensions
5.1 Introduction – Suspension
5.2 Properties relevant to Filtration Performance
5.2.1 Pre-Filtration Properties of Suspension
5.2.2 Properties of Filter Cake
5.2.3 Laboratory Scale Filtration Rigs
5.3 Means of Monitoring Flocculant Dosage
5.4 Filter Cake Testing
5.4.1 Strength Testing (See also piston press described earlier)
5.4.2 Cake Permeability or Resistance
5.4.3 Rate of Cake Formation
6 Examples of the Application of the Forgoing Principles
6.1 Dewatering of Calcium Carbonate Slurries
6.2 Dewatering of Organic Products – Procion Dyestuffs
6.3 Filtration of Biological Systems – Harvesting a Filamentous Organism
References
Tables
Figures
This document is a process engineering guide from GBH Enterprises on mixing of miscible liquids. It provides information on selecting between mechanically agitated vessels, jet mixed vessels, and tubular mixers. It also discusses the key parameters in designing agitated vessels, including mixing time, power requirements, vortex formation, heat transfer, and flow/circulation. Design considerations and correlations are presented for each of these parameters to aid in the selection and design of mixing equipment for miscible liquids.
Batch Distillation
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 BACKGROUND TO THE DESIGN
4.1 General
4.2 Choice of batch/continuous operation
4.3 Boiling point curve and cut policy
4.4 Method of design
4.5 Scope of calculations required for design
5 SIMPLE BATCH DISTILLATION
6 FRACTIONAL BATCH DISTILLATION
6.1 General
6.2 Approximate methods
6.3 Rigorous design - use of a computer model
6.4 Other factors influencing the design
6.4.1 Occupation
6.4.2 Choice of Batch Rectification or Stripping
6.4.3 Batch size
6.4.4 Initial estimate of cut policy
6.4.5 Liquid Holdup
6.4.6 Total reflux operation and heating-up time
6.4.7 Column operating pressure
6.5 Optimum Design of the Batch Still
6.6 Special design problems
7 GENERAL ASPECTS OF EQUIPMENT DESIGN
7.1 Kettle reboilers
7.2 Column Internals
7.3 Condensers and reflux split boxes
8 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION IN
BATCH DISTILLATION
9 MECHANICAL DESIGN FEATURES
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A McCABE - THIELE METHOD - TYPICAL EXAMPLE
Mixing of Immiscible Liquids
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 EQUIPMENT
4.1 Agitated Tanks
4.2 Flow Mixers
4.3 'High Shear' Mixers
5 SYSTEM PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
5.1 Density
5.2 Viscosity
5.3 Interfacial Tension
6 STIRRED VESSELS
6.1 Design for Complete Dispersion
6.2 Prediction of Phase Inversion
6.3 Design for Mass Transfer
6.4 Design for Dispersed Phase Mixing
6.5 Hold-Up in Continuous Vessels
7 FLOW MIXERS
7.1 Design for Turbulent Conditions
7.2 Design for Laminar Conditions
TABLES
1 REYNOLDS NUMBER RANGES
FIGURES
1 STANDARD TANK CONFIGURATION
2 EXPERIMENTAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MASS
TRANSFER COEFFICIENT AND POWER DENSITY
SYNOPSIS
The principles underlying centrifugal separation of particulate species are briefly considered, and the main types of separator available are noted. The procedures available for scale-up from laboratory or semi-technical data are then discussed in detail with particular reference to perhaps the most important class of machine for fine particle processing: the disc-nozzle centrifuge.
Starting with the basic concepts behind their design, discussion follows to explain the factors which may limit centrifuge performance. It is shown how a few simple; laboratory scale tests can give a valuable insight into the design and operation of full-scale industrial machines.
Centrifugal Compressors
SECTION ONE - ANTI-SURGE PROTECTION AND THROUGHPUT REGULATION
0 INTRODUCTION
1 SCOPE
2 MACHINE CHARACTERISTICS
2.1 Characteristics of a Single Compressor Stage
2.2 Characteristic of a Multiple Stage Having More
Than One Impeller
2.3 Use of Compressor Characteristics in Throughput
Regulation Schemes
3 MECHANISM AND EFFECTS OF SURGE
3.1 Basic Flow Instabilities
3.2 Occurrence of Surge
3.3 Intensity of Surge
3.4 Effects of Surge
3.5 Avoidance of Surge
3.6 Recovery from Surge
4 CONTROL SCHEMES INCLUDING SURGE PROTECTION
4.1 Output Control
4.2 Surge Protection
4.3 Surge Detection and Recovery
5 DYNAMIC CONSIDERATIONS
5.1 Interaction
5.2 Speed of Response of Antisurge Control System
6 SYSTEM EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS
6.1 The Antisurge Control Valve
6.2 Non-return Valve
6.3 Pressure and flow measurement
6.4 Signal transmission
6.5 Controllers
7 TESTING
7.1 Determination of the Surge Line
7.2 Records
8 INLET GUIDE VANE UNITS
8.1 Application
8.2 Effect on Power Consumption of the Compressor
8.3 Effect of Gas Conditions, Properties and Contaminants
8.4 Aerodynamic Considerations
8.5 Control System Linearity
8.6 Actuator Specification
8.7 Avoidance of Surge
8.8 Features of Link Mechanisms
8.9 Limit Stops and Shear Links
APPENDICES
A LIST OF SYMBOLS AND PREFERRED UNITS
B WORKED EXAMPLE 1 COMPRESSOR WITH VARIABLE INLET PRESSURE AND VARIABLE GAS COMPOSITION
C WORKED EXAMPLE 2 A CONSTANT SPEED ~ STAGE COMPRESSOR WITH INTER-COOLING
D WORKED EXAMPLE 3 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF THE ANTISURGE PROTECTION SYSTEM FOR A SERVICE AIR COMPRESSOR RUNNING AT CONSTANT SPEED
E EXAMPLE OF INLET GUIDE VANE REGULATION
FIGURES
2.1 TYPICAL COMPRESSOR STAGE CHARACTERISTIC PLOTTED WITH FLOW AT DISCHARGE CONDITIONS
2.2 TYPICAL COMPRESSOR STAGE CHARACTERISTIC PLOTTED WITH FLOW AT INLET CONDITIONS
2.3 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPRESSOR STAGE AT VARYING SPEEDS
2.4 SYSTEM WORKING POINT DEFINED BY INTERSECTION OF PROCESS AND COMPRESSOR CHARACTERISTICS
2.5 DISCHARGE THROTTLE REGULATION
2.6 BYPASS REGULATION
2.7 INLET THROTTLE REGULATION
2.8 INLET GUIDE VANE REGULATION
2.9 VARIABLE SPEED REGULATION
3.1 GAS PULSATION LEVELS FOR A CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
3.2 REPRESENTATION OF CYCLIC FLOW DURING SURGE OF LONG PERIOD
3.3 TYPICAL WAVEFORM OF DISCHARGE PRESSURE DURING SURGE
3.4 MULTIPLE SURGE LINE FOR A MULTISTAGE CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
3.5 TYPICAL MULTIPLE SURGE LINES FOR SINGLE STAGE AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSOR
4.1 GENERAL SCHEMATIC FOR COMPRESSORS OPERATING IN PARALLEL TO FEED MULTIPLE USER PLANTS
4.2 ILLUSTRATION OF SAFETY MARGIN BETWEEN SURGE POINT AND SURGE PROTECTION POINT AT WHICH ANTISURGE SYSTEM IS ACTIVATED
4.3 ANTISURGE SYSTEM FOR COMPRESSOR WITH FLAT PERFO ..........
The Preliminary Choice of Fan or Compressor
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 METHOD FOR PRELIMINARY SELECTION
OF COMPRESSOR
5 PROCESS DATA SHEET
5.1 Essential Data for the Completion of a
Process Data Sheet
5.2 Gas Properties
5.3 Discharge Requirements
6 PRELIMINARY CHOICE OF FAN AND
COMPRESSOR TYPE
6.1 Essential Data for Preliminary Selection
7 FAN AND COMPRESSOR APPLICATIONS
7.1 Fans
7.2 Centrifugal Compressors
7.3 Axial Compressors
7.4 Reciprocating Compressors
7.5 Screw Compressors
7.6 Positive Displacement Blowers
7.7 Sliding Vane Compressors
7.8 Liquid Ring Compressors
8 PROVISION OF INSTALLED SPARES
9 PRELIMINARY ESTIMATE OF COSTS
Design and Simulation of Continuous Distillation ColumnsGerard B. Hawkins
Design and Simulation of Continuous Distillation Columns
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
5 ROUGH METHOD OF COLUMN DESIGN
5.1 Sharp Separations
5.2 Sloppy Separations
6 DETAIL DESIGN USING THE CHEMCAD DISTILLATION PROGRAM
6.1 Sharp Separations
6.2 Sloppy Separations
7 COMPLEX COLUMNS
7.1 Multiple Feeds
7.2 Sidestream Take-Offs
8 DESIGN USING A LABORATORY COLUMN
SIMULATION
9 DESIGN USING ACTUAL PLANT DATA
9.1 Uprating or Debottlenecking Exercises
10 REFERENCES
APPENDICES
A WORKED EXAMPLE
B SLOPPY SEPARATIONS
C SIMULATION USING PLANT DATA : CASE HISTORIES
TABLES
Data Sources For Calculating Chemical Reaction EquilibriaGerard B. Hawkins
Data Sources For Calculating Chemical Reaction Equilibria
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 BACKGROUND TO THEORY
5 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Gas Mixing
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GAS MIXING:
PLUG FLOW
5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GAS MIXING:
BACKMIXED INITIAL ZONE
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fluid Separation
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 A SEPARATION LOGIC TREE
5 METHODS OF DISTILLATION
5.1 Fractional Distillation
5.2 Azeotropic Distillation
5.3 Extractive Distillation
6 LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION
7 OTHER COMMERCIAL METHODS OF SEPARATION
7.1 Adsorption
7.2 Fractional Crystallization
7.3 Ion Exchange
7.4 Membrane Processes
7.4.1 Ultrafiltration
7.4.2 Reverse Osmosis
7.4.3 Pervaporation
7.4.4 Liquid Membranes
7.4.5 Gas Permeation
7.4.6 Dialysis
7.4.7 Electrodialysis
7.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
7.6 Dissociation Extraction
7.7 Foam Fractionation
7.8 Clathration
7.9 Chromatography
8. OTHER METHODS OF SEPARATION
8.1 Precipitation
8.2 Paper Chromatography
8.3 Ligand Specific Chromatography
8.4 Electrophoresis
8.5 Isoelectric Focusing
8.6 Thermal Diffusion
8.7 Sedimentation Ultracentrifugation
8.8 Isopycnic Ultracentrifugation
8.9 Molecular Distillation
8.10 Gel Filtration
APPENDICES
A AT A GLANCE CHART BASED ON FENSKE, UNDERWOOD
B A GENERALIZED y - x DIAGRAM
C TEMPERATURE - COMPOSITION DIAGRAMS FOR
AZEOTROPIC MIXTURES
D A TYPICAL y - x DIAGRAM FOR EXTRACTIVE DISTILLATION (SOLVENT FREE BASIS)
E RAPID ESTIMATION OF LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION REQUIREMENTS
F LIQUID - LIQUID EXTRACTION - THE USE OF EXTRACT REFLUX
G SELECTIVITIES REQUIRED FOR EQUAL PLANT COSTS
FIGURE
1 SEPARATION LOGIC TREE
Distillation Sequences, Complex Columns and Heat IntegrationGerard B. Hawkins
Distillation Sequences, Complex Columns and Heat Integration
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 SEQUENCING OF SIMPLE COLUMNS
4.1 Sidestream Columns
4.2 Multi-Feed Columns
5 SIMPLE COLUMN SEQUENCING AND HEAT
INTEGRATION INTERACTIONS
5.1 Energy Quantity and Quality
5.2 Heat Integration within the Total Flowsheet
6 COMPLEX COLUMN ARRANGEMENTS
6.1 Indirect Sequence with Vapor Link
6.2 Sidestream Systems
6.3 Pre-Fractionator Systems
7 COMPLEX COLUMNS AND HEAT INTEGRATION
INTERACTIONS
FIGURES
1 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SEQUENCES
2 A SINGLE SIDESTREAM COLUMN REPLACING 2
SIMPLE COLUMNS
3 A TYPICAL MULTI-FEED COLUMN
4 TYPICAL GRAND COMPOSITION CURVE
5 TYPICAL INDIRECT SEQUENCE WITH VAPOUR LINK
6 SIDESTREAM STRIPPER AND SIDESTREAM
RECTIFIER
7 SIMPLEST PRE-FRACTIONATOR SYSTEM
8 SIMPLEST PRE-FRACTIONATOR SYSTEM
9 PETLYUK COLUMN
Solid Catalyzed Reactions
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 GENERAL BACKGROUND
4.1 General Considerations
5 SOLID CATALYZED GAS REACTIONS
5.1 Reaction Kinetics
5.2 Tests for Transport Limitations
5.3 Building a Reaction Kinetic Equation
6 INTRAPARTICLE
6.1 Types of Pore System
6.2 The Catalyst Effectiveness Factor
6.3 The Measurement of Effective Diffusivity
7 ENHANCEMENT OF INTRAPARTICLE
8 NOMENCLATURE
8.1 Dimensionless Parameters
8.2 Greek Letters
8.3 Subscripts
9 BIBLIOGRAPHY
9.1 Further Reading
APPENDICES
A LANGMUIR - HINSHELWOOD KINETICS
FIGURES
1 EFFECTIVE RATE CONSTANT
2 ITERATIVE APPROACH TO REACTOR MODEL
DEVELOPMENT
3 COMMON LABORATORY MICROREACTORS (FLOW TYPE)
4 THE BERTY REACTOR
5 STEPS IN BUILDING A REACTION RATE EQUATION
6 A CENTRAL-COMPOSITE DESIGN FOR TWO FACTORS
7 FIRST ORDER ISOTHERMAL IRREVERSIBLE
REACTION WITHIN A CATALYST SPHERE
8 INTEGRAL YIELD vs CONVERSION SHOWING EFFECT OF PELLET DIFFUSION
9 PREDICTED AND EXPERIMENTAL EFFECTIVENESS FACTORS
10 STRUCTURAL PERMEABILITY vs PRESSURE PARAMETER Z FOR BI-MODAL SUPPORTS
11 EFFECTIVENESS FACTOR vs THIELE MODULUS AND INTRAPARTICLE PECLET NUMBER
12 RELATIVE INCREASE IN CATALYST PERFORMANCE
Use and Applications of Membranes
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 GENERAL
4.1 What is a Membrane Process?
4.2 What does a Membrane look like?
4.3 Why use Membranes?
4.4 Membrane Types and Polymers Used
5 REVERSE OSMOSIS
5.1 Principles of Reverse Osmosis
5.2 Limitations
5.3 Performance
5.4 Costs
5.5 Worked Example
5.6 Applications
6 MICROFILTRATION AND ULTRAFILTRATION
6.1 Microfiltration
6.2 Ultrafiltration
7 PERVAPORATION
7.1 Classes of Application
7.2 Characteristics
7.3 Costs
7.4 Example - Lurgi Design
7.5 Application - Stripping Organics from Water
8 GAS SEPARATION AND VAPOR PERMEATION
8.1 Gas Separation
8.2 Vapor Permeation
9 LESS COMMON MEMBRANE PROCESSES
9.1 Dialysis
9.2 Electrodialysis
9.3 Electrolysis
9.4 Salt Splitting
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
TABLES
1 UTILITY CONSUMPTION AND COST COMPARISON
Lubricants
Engineering Design Guide
0 INTRODUCTION
1 SCOPE
2 LUBRICATION BASICS
2.1 Basic Functions of a Lubricant
2.2 Hydrostatic Fluid Film Lubrication
2.3 Hydrodynamic Fluid Film Lubrication
2.4 Boundary Lubrication
2.5 Mixed Lubrication
3 VISCOSITY
3.1 General
3.2 Dynamic Viscosity
3.3 Kinematic Viscosity
3.4 Measurement of Viscosity
3.5 Viscosity Classification of Lubricants
3.6 Viscosity Index
3.7 Viscosity Change with Pressure
4 MINERAL OILS
4.1 General Characteristics
4.2 British Standard 4475 Commentary
4.3 Oil Additives
4.4 Synthetic Oils
5 GREASES
5.1 Composition
5.2 Properties
6 SOLID LUBRICANTS
7 SELECTION OF LUBRICANTS
8 OPERATING FACTORS
8.1 Filtration
8.2 Operating Temperatures
8.3 Total Loss Lubrication Systems
9 LUBRICANT SUPPLY AND SCHEDULING
9.1 Selection of Supplier
9.2 Lubrication Schedules
10 HEATH AND SAFETY
11 MONITORING & MAINTENANCE OF OIL IN SERVICE
11.1 Analyze or Change?
11.2 Visual Analysis
1 I.3 Laboratory Analysis
11.4 Contamination Problems
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A VISCOSITY EQUIVALENTS
B SYMBOLS AND PREFERRED UNITS
FIGURES
I LUBRICANT CHANGE PERIODS AND TESTS
2 CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERAL LUBRICATING OILS VG32 TO VG 460.
3 SERVICE MONITORING AND MAINTENANCE OF OIL IN SERVICE ON LARGE SYSTEMS
TABLES
1 ISO VISCOSITY CLASSIFICATION
2 OILS TO BS 4475 RECOMMENDED FOR USE BY GBHE
3 SUGGESTED OIL CHANGE PERIODS FOR SMALL INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS
4 VISUAL EXAMINATION OF USED LUBRICATING OILS
5 SUMMARY OF ROUTINE ANALYTICAL TESTS FOR INDUSTRIAL OILS
Reciprocating Compressors - Protection against Crank Case ExplosionsGerard B. Hawkins
Reciprocating Compressors - Protection against Crank Case Explosions
1 SCOPE
2 OIL MIST/AIR MIXTURE EXPLOSIONS
3 PREVENTION AND PROTECTION
3.1 Design
3.2 Maintenance and Operation
FIGURES
1 FLAMMABILITY LIMITS AND SPONTANEOUS IGNITION REGION FOR MIXTURES OF LUBRICATING OIL VAPOR IN AIR.
Pressure Relief Systems Vol 2
Causes of Relief Situations
This Volume 2 is a guide to the qualitative identification of common causes of overpressure in process equipment. It cannot be exhaustive; the process engineer and relief systems team should look for any credible situation in addition to those given in this Part which could lead to a need for pressure relief (a relief situation).
This document provides guidelines for engineering design of pressure relief systems. It discusses key principles such as identifying potential overpressure and underpressure causes, sizing relief systems to prevent hazards, and safely disposing of relieved materials. The guidelines cover statutory requirements, recommended design procedures, and documentation standards. The overall goal is to preserve equipment integrity and prevent failure from over or under pressure during all process phases.
GAS DISPERSION - A Definitive Guide to Accidental Releases of Heavy GasesGerard B. Hawkins
GAS DISPERSION - A Definitive Guide to Accidental Releases of Heavy Gases
This Process Safety Guide has been written with the aim of assisting process engineers, hazard analysts and environmental advisers in carrying out gas dispersion calculations. The Guide aims to provide assistance by:
• Improving awareness of the range of dispersion models available within GBHE, and providing guidance in choosing the most appropriate model for a particular application.
• Providing guidance to ensure that source terms and other model inputs are correctly specified, and the models are used within their range of applicability.
• Providing guidance to deal with particular topics in gas dispersion such as dense gas dispersion, complex terrain, and modeling the chemistry of oxides of nitrogen.
• Providing general background on air quality and dispersion modeling issues such as meteorology and air quality standards.
• Providing example calculations for real practical problems.
SCOPE
The gas dispersion guide contains the following Parts:
1 Fundamentals of meteorology.
2 Overview of air quality standards.
3 Comparison between different air quality models.
4 Designing a stack.
5 Dense gas dispersion.
6 Calculation of source terms.
7 Building wake effects.
8 Overview of the chemistry of the oxides of nitrogen.
9 Overview of the ADMS complex terrain module.
10 Overview of the ADMS deposition module.
11 ADMS examples.
12 Modeling odorous releases.
13 Bibliography of useful gas dispersion books and reports.
14 Glossary of gas dispersion modeling terms.
Appendix A : Modeling Wind Generation of Particulates.
APPENDIX B TABLE OF PROPERTY VALUES FOR SPECIFIC CHEMICALS
101 Things That Can Go Wrong on a Primary Reformer - Best Practices GuideGerard B. Hawkins
This document discusses common problems that can occur in primary reformers and associated equipment. It identifies issues that can lead to plant shutdowns or efficiency losses, grouping them under catalysts, tubes, furnace boxes, burners, flue gas ducts, headers, and refractories. Some examples discussed include carbon formation, tube overheating, flame impingement, leaks in air preheaters, combustion air maldistribution, and damage to coffins. The document provides an overview of these issues to improve plant reliability over its lifespan.
El impacto en el rendimiento del catalizador por envenenamiento y ensuciamien...Gerard B. Hawkins
El documento describe los procesos de refinería y catalizadores, así como los efectos del envenenamiento y ensuciamiento en el rendimiento de los catalizadores. El envenenamiento reduce la actividad de los catalizadores al bloquear los sitios activos o modificar la química de la superficie, lo que afecta la actividad y selectividad. Los niveles bajos de contaminantes tienen un mayor impacto en catalizadores con menor área de superficie. El envenenamiento también puede causar cambios estructurales en el catalizador y permitir
Theory of Carbon Formation in Steam Reforming
Contents
1 Introduction
2 Underpinning Theory
2.1 Conceptualization
2.2 Reforming Reactions
2.3 Carbon Formation Chemistry
2.3.1 Natural Gas
2.3.2 Carbon Formation for Naphtha Feeds
2.3.3 Carbon Gasification
2.4 Heat Transfer
3 Causes
3.1 Effects of Carbon Formation
3.2 Types of Carbon
4 What are the Effects of Carbon Formation?
4.1 Why does Carbon Formation Get Worse?
4.1.1 So what is the Next Step?
4.2 Consequences of Carbon Formation
4.3 Why does Carbon Form where it does?
4.3.1 Effect on Process Gas Temperature
4.4 Why does Carbon Formation Propagate Down the Tube?
4.4.1 Effect on Radiation on the Fluegas Side
4.5 Why does Carbon Formation propagate Up the Tube?
5 How do we Prevent Carbon Formation
5.1 The Role of Potash
5.2 Inclusion of Pre-reformer
5.3 Primary Reformer Catalyst Parameters
5.3.1 Activity
5.3.2 Heat Transfer
5.3.3 Increased Steam to Carbon Ratio
6 Steam Out
6.1 Why does increasing the Steam to Carbon Ratio Not Work?
6.2 Why does reducing the Feed Rate not help?
6.3 Fundamental Principles of Steam Outs
TABLES
1 Heat Transfer Coefficients in a Typical Reformer
2 Typical Catalyst Loading Options
FIGURES
1 Hot Bands
2 Conceptual Pellet
3 Naphtha Carbon Formation
4 Heat Transfer within an Reformer
5 Types of Carbon Formation
6 Effect of Carbon on Nickel Crystallites
7 Absorption of Heat
8 Comparison of "Base Case" v Carbon Forming Tube
9 Carbon Formation Vicious Circle
10 Temperature Profiles
11 Carbon Pinch Point
12 Carbon Formation
13 Effect on Process Gas Temperature
14 How does Carbon Propagate into an Unaffected Zone?
15 Movement of the Carbon Forming Region
16 Effect of Hot Bands on Radiative Heat Transfer
17 Effect of Potash on Carbon Formation
18 Application of a Pre-reformer
19 Effect of Activity on Carbon Formation
Adiabatic Reactor Analysis for Methanol Synthesis Plant Note Book Series: P...Gerard B. Hawkins
The document discusses adiabatic reactor analysis for methanol synthesis from syngas. It provides the reaction kinetics and calculates conversion, temperature, and reactor volume needed at different conversions. Energy and mass balances are used to derive relationships between conversion, temperature and reaction rate. Data is generated to plot conversion versus volumetric flow rate for reactor sizing. The plot indicates a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) could achieve 85% conversion before switching to a plug flow reactor (PFR) for higher conversion with less volume.
STEAMING PROCEDURE FOR VULCAN STEAM REFORMING CATALYSTSGerard B. Hawkins
The document discusses procedures for steaming Vulcan steam reforming catalysts to recover from sulfur poisoning and carbon formation incidents. It describes maintaining steam flow at 30-40% of design levels and an outlet temperature above 780°C. Gas samples should be taken hourly to monitor CO2, CH4, H2S and SO2. Steaming is complete when CO2 levels stabilize over 2-3 samples after increasing the temperature. The process typically takes 12-24 hours to complete and closely monitors pressure drop and tube conditions. After steaming, the catalyst requires reduction before restarting hydrocarbon feed.
Calculation of an Ammonia Plant Energy Consumption: Gerard B. Hawkins
Calculation of an Ammonia Plant Energy Consumption:
Case Study: #06023300
Plant Note Book Series: PNBS-0602
CONTENTS
0 SCOPE
1 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS PROCESS FEED CONSUMPTION
2 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS PROCESS FUEL CONSUMPTION
3 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS CONSUMPTION FOR PILOT BURNERS OF FLARES
4 CALCULATION OF DEMIN. WATER FROM DEMIN. UNIT
5 CALCULATION OF DEMIN. WATER TO PACKAGE BOILERS
6 CALCULATION OF MP STEAM EXPORT
7 CALCULATION OF LP STEAM IMPORT
8 DETERMINATION OF ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION
9 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT ISBL
10 ADJUSTMENT OF ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION FOR TEST RUN CONDITIONS
11 CALCULATION OF AMMONIA SHARE IN MP STEAM CONSUMPTION IN UTILITIES
12 CALCULATION OF AMMONIA SHARE IN ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION IN UTILITIES
13 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT OSBL
14 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT
Ammonia Plant Technology
Pre-Commissioning Best Practices
GBHE-APT-0102
PICKLING & PASSIVATION
CONTENTS
1 PURPOSE OF THE WORK
2 CHEMICAL CONCEPT
3 TECHNICAL CONCEPT
4 WASTES & SAFETY CONCEPT
5 TARGET RESULTS
6 THE GENERAL CLEANING SEQUENCE MANAGEMENT
6.6.1 Pre-cleaning or “Physical Cleaning
6.6.2 Pre-rinsing
6.6.3 Chemical Cleaning
6.6.4 Critical Factors in Cleaning Success
6.6.5 Rinsing
6.6.6 Inspection and Re-Cleaning, if Necessary
7 Systems to be treated by Pickling/Passivation
Ammonia Plant Technology
Pre-Commissioning Best Practices
Piping and Vessels Flushing and Cleaning Procedure
CONTENTS
1 Scope
2 Aim/purpose
3 Responsibilities
4 Procedure
4.1 Main cleaning methods
4.1.1 Mechanical cleaning
4.1.2 Cleaning with air
4.1.3 Cleaning with steam (for steam networks only)
4.1.4 Cleaning with water
4.2 Choice of the cleaning method
4.3 Cleaning preparation
4.4 Protection of the devices included in the network
4.5 Protection of devices in the vicinity of the network
4.6 Water flushing procedure
4.6.1 Specific problems of water flushing
4.6.2 Preparation for water flushing
4.6.3 Performing a water flush
4.6.4 Cleanliness criteria
4.7 Air blowing procedure
4.7.1 Specific problems of air blowing
4.7.2 Preparation for air blowing
4.7.3 Performing air blowing
4.7.4 Cleanliness checks
4.8 Steam blowing procedure
4.8.1 Specific problems of steam blowing
4.8.2 Preparation for steam blowing
4.8.3 Performing steam blowing
4.8.4 Cleanliness checks
4.9 Chemical cleaning procedure
4.9.1 Specific problems of cleaning with a chemical solution
4.9.2 Preparation for chemical cleaning
4.9.3 Performing a chemical cleaning
4.9.4 Cleanliness criteria
4.10 Re-assembly - general guideline
4.11 Preservation of flushed piping
DESIGN OF VENT GAS COLLECTION AND DESTRUCTION SYSTEMS Gerard B. Hawkins
DESIGN OF VENT GAS COLLECTION AND DESTRUCTION SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose
1.2 Scope of this Guide
1.3 Use of the Guide
2 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
2.1 Principal Concerns
2.2 Mechanisms for Ozone Formation
2.3 Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential
2.4 Health and Environmental Effects
2.5 Air Quality Standards for Ground Level Concentrations of Ozone, Targets for Reduction of VOC Discharges and Statutory Discharge Limits
3 VENTS REDUCTION PHILOSOPHY
3.1 Reduction at Source
3.2 End-of-pipe Treatment
4 METHODOLOGY FOR COLLECTION & ASSESSMENT OF PROCESS FLOW DATA
4.1 General
4.2 Identification of Vent Sources
4.3 Characterization of Vents
4.4 Quantification of Process Vent Flows
4.5 Component Flammability Data Collection
4.6 Identification of Operating Scenarios
4.7 Quantification of Flammability Characteristics for Combined Vents
4.8 Identification, Quantification and Assessment of Possibility of Air Ingress Routes
4.9 Tabulation of Data
4.10 Hazard Study and Risk Assessment
4.11 Note on Aqueous / Organic Wastes
4.12 Complexity of Systems
4.13 Summary
5 SAFE DESIGN OF VENT COLLECTION HEADER SYSTEMS
5.1 General
5.2 Process Design of Vent Headers
5.3 Liquid in Vent Headers
5.4 Materials of Construction
5.5 Static Electricity Hazard
5.6 Diversion Systems
5.7 Snuffing Systems
6 SAFE DESIGN OF THERMAL OXIDISERS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Design Basis
6.3 Types of High Temperature Thermal Oxidizer
6.4 Refractories
6.5 Flue Gas Treatment
6.6 Control and Safety Systems
6.7 Project Program
6.8 Commissioning
6.9 Operational and Maintenance Management
APPENDICES
A GLOSSARY
B FLAMMABILITY
C EXAMPLE PROFORMA
D REFERENCES
DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS PROCESS GUIDE
TABLE
1 PHOTOCHEMICAL OZONE CREATION POTENTIAL REFERENCED
TO ETHYLENE AS UNITY
FIGURES
1 SCHEMATIC OF TYPICAL VENT COLLECTION AND THERMAL OXIDIZER SYSTEM
2 TYPICAL KNOCK-OUT POT WITH LUTED DRAIN
3 SCHEMATIC OF DIVERSION SYSTEM
4 CONVENTIONAL VERTICAL THERMAL OXIDIZER
5 CONVENTIONAL OXIDIZER WITH INTEGRAL WATER SPARGER
6 THERMAL OXIDIZER WITH STAGED AIR INJECTION
7 DOWN-FIRED UNIT WITH WATER BATH QUENCH
8 FLAMELESS THERMAL OXIDATION UNIT
9 THERMAL OXIDIZER WITH REGENERATIVE HEAT RECOVERY
10 TYPICAL PROJECT PROGRAM
11 TYPICAL FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAM
12 EFFECT OF DILUTION WITH AIR
13 EFFECT OF DILUTION WITH AIR ON 100 Rm³ OF FLAMMABLE GAS
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE SELECTION OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY FOR THE TREATMENT OF A...Gerard B. Hawkins
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE SELECTION OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY FOR THE TREATMENT OF AQUEOUS ORGANIC EFFLUENT STREAMS
CONTENTS
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
3.1 IPU
3.2 AOS
3.3 BODs
3.4 COD
3.5 TOC
3.6 Toxicity
3.7 Refractory Organics/Hard COD
3.8 Heavy Metals
3.9 EA
3.10 Biological Treatment Terms
3.11 BATNEEC
3.12 BPEO
3.13 EQS/LV
3.14 IPC
3.15 VOC
3.16 F/M Ratio
3.17 MLSS
3.18 MLVSS
4 DESIGN/ECONOMIC GUIDELINES
5 EUROPEAN LEGISLATION
5.1 General
5.2 Integrated Pollution Control (IPC)
5.3 Best Available Techniques Not Entailing Excessive Costs (BATNEEC)
5.4 Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO)
5.5 Environmental Quality Standards(EQS)
6 IPU EXIT CONCENTRATION
7 SITE/LOCAL REQUIREMENTS
8 PROCESS SELECTION PROCEDURE
8.1 Waste Minimization Techniques (WMT)
8.2 AOS Stream Definition
8.3 Technical Check List
8.4 Preliminary Selection of Suitable Technologies
8.5 Process Sequences
8.6 Economic Evaluation
8.7 Process Selection
APPENDICES
A DIRECTIVE 76/464/EEC - LIST 1
B DIRECTIVE 76/464/EEC - LIST 2
C THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION PRIORITY CANDIDATE LIST
D THE UK RED LIST
E CURRENT VALUES FOR EUROPEAN COMMUNITY ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY STANDARDS AND CORRESPONDING LIMIT VALUES
F ESTABLISHED TECHNOLOGIES
G EMERGING TECHNOLOGY
H PROPRIETARY/LESS COMMON TECHNOLOGIES
J COMPARATIVE COST DATA
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE REDUCTION OF DISCHARGES TO ATMOSPHERE OF VOLATILE ORGA...Gerard B. Hawkins
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE REDUCTION OF DISCHARGES TO ATMOSPHERE OF VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCs)
FOREWORD
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
2 THE NEED FOR VOC CONTROL
3 CONTROL AT SOURCE
3.1 Choice or Solvent
3.2 Venting Arrangements
3.3 Nitrogen Blanketing
3.4 Pump Versus Pneumatic Transfer
3.5 Batch Charging
3.6 Reduction of Volumetric Flow
3.7 Stock Tank Design
4 DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT
4.1 By Inference or Calculation
4.2 Flow Monitoring Equipment
4.3 Analytical Instruments
4.4 Vent Emissions Database
5 ABATEMENT TECHNOLOGY
5.1 Available Options
5.2 Selection of Preferred Option
5.3 Condensation
5.4 Adsorption
5.5 Absorption
5.6 Thermal Incineration
5.7 Catalytic Oxidation
5.8 Biological Filtration
5.9 Combinations of Process technologies
5.10 Processes Under Development
6 GLOSSARY OF TERMS
7 REFERENCES
Appendix 1. Photochemical Ozone Creation Potentials
Appendix 2. Examples of Adsorption Preliminary Calculations
Appendix 3. Example of Thermal Incineration Heat and Mass Balance
Appendix 4. Cost Correlations
Getting the Most Out of Your Refinery Hydrogen PlantGerard B. Hawkins
Getting the Most Out of Your Refinery Hydrogen Plant
Contents
Summary
1 Introduction
2 "On-purpose" Hydrogen Production
3 Operational Aspects
4 Uprating Options on the Steam Reformer
4.1 Steam Reforming Catalysts and Tube Metallurgy
4.2 Oxygen-blown Secondary Reformer
4.3 Pre-reforming
4.4 Post-reforming
5 Downstream Units
6 Summary of Uprating Options
7 Conclusions
EMERGENCY ISOLATION OF CHEMICAL PLANTS
CONTENTS
1 Introduction
2 When should Emergency Isolation Valves be Installed
3 Emergency Isolation Valves and Associated Equipment
3.1 Installations on existing plant
3.2 Actuators
3.3 Power to close or power to open
3.4 The need for testing
3.5 Hand operated Emergency Valves
3.6 The need to stop pumps in an emergency
3.7 Location of Operating Buttons
3.8 Use of control valves for Isolation
4 Detection of Leaks and Fires
5 Precautions during Maintenance
6 Training Operators to use Emergency Isolation Valves
7 Emergency Isolation when no remotely operated valve is available
References
Glossary
Appendix I Some Fires or Serious Escapes of Flammable Gases or Liquids that could have been controlled by Emergency Isolation Valves
Appendix II Some typical Installations
Amine Gas Treating Unit - Best Practices - Troubleshooting Guide Gerard B. Hawkins
Amine Gas Treating Unit Best Practices - Troubleshooting Guide for H2S/CO2 Amine Systems
Contents
Process Capabilities for gas treating process
Typical Amine Treating
Typical Amine System Improvements
Primary Equipment Overview
Inlet Gas Knockout
Absorber
Three Phase Flash Tank
Lean/Rich Heat Exchanger
Regenerator
Filtration
Amine Reclaimer
Operating Difficulties Overview
Foaming
Failure to Meet Gas Specification
Solvent Losses
Corrosion
Typical Amine System Improvements
Degradation of Amines and Alkanolamines during Sour Gas Treating
APPENDIX
Best Practices - Troubleshooting Guide
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OpenID AuthZEN Interop Read Out - AuthorizationDavid Brossard
During Identiverse 2024 and EIC 2024, members of the OpenID AuthZEN WG got together and demoed their authorization endpoints conforming to the AuthZEN API
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UiPath integration with generative AI
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1. GBH Enterprises, Ltd.
Process Engineering Guide:
GBHE-PEG-MIX-709
'High Shear' Mixers
Information contained in this publication or as otherwise supplied to Users is
believed to be accurate and correct at time of going to press, and is given in
good faith, but it is for the User to satisfy itself of the suitability of the information
for its own particular purpose. GBHE gives no warranty as to the fitness of this
information for any particular purpose and any implied warranty or condition
(statutory or otherwise) is excluded except to the extent that exclusion is
prevented by law. GBHE accepts no liability resulting from reliance on this
information. Freedom under Patent, Copyright and Designs cannot be assumed.
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
2. Process Engineering Guide:
'High Shear' Mixers
CONTENTS
SECTION
0
INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
3
1
SCOPE
3
2
FIELD OF APPLICATION
3
3
DEFINITIONS
3
4
SELECTION OF MIXER TYPE
3
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
The Shrouded Turbine
Turbine Mixers
Unshrouded Agitators
In-Line Mixers
Ultrasonic Homogenizers
3
4
4
5
5
5
SHROUDED TURBINE DATA
6
5.1
5.2
Recommended Duties
Equipment Data
6
6
6
HIGH SPEED INTERNAL (TURBINE & VESSEL
COMBINED) MIXERS
10
Recommended Duties
Equipment Data
10
11
6.1
6.2
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
3. 7
HIGH SPEED UNSHROUDED (SAWTOOTH) AGITATORS
12
7.1
7.2
Duties
Equipment Data
12
13
TABLES
1 POWER INSTALLED FOR TORRANCE SAWTOOTH
IMPELLERS
15
FIGURES
1
SHROUDED TURBINE
4
2
TURBINE AND VESSEL COMBINED
4
3
SAWTOOTH MIXER
5
4
IN-LINE MIXER (OAKES)
5
5
ULTRASONIC EMULSIFIER IN-LINE
6
6
ROTOR STATOR GEOMETRIES
7
7
SAWTOOTH IMPELLER RANGE OF GEOMETRIES
(AFTER TORRANCE)
13
MIXER POWER CURVES
14
8
DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS PROCESS
ENGINEERING GUIDE
16
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
4. 0
INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
"High shear" mixers are used widely in the paint, food, pharmaceuticals,
adhesives and coating industries, but their application in the chemical plant
operations has been limited. The break-up of solid agglomerates, especially the
dispersion into paints, is a major application. Many wet filter cakes may be
redispersed by high shear mixers prior to drying. Emulsification and foaming
feature in pharmaceutical, food and cosmetic applications.
"High shear" mixers are particularly effective for dissolving high polymer
additives. It should, however, be remembered that polymer chains in excess of
about 20,000 monomer units are vulnerable to degradation in commercial high
shear mixers. This degradation of polymers is used for viscosity control in the
manufacture of shampoo and in other processes to obtain optimum rheological
characteristics.
The process engineer may be faced with the task of selecting a satisfactory
device from one of the many proprietary designs available. The technical
guidance available from the suppliers often falls short of the ideal; manufacturers
may not always be able to supply such basic information as the power
consumption of a mixer for a liquid of density greater than that of water.
1
SCOPE
This Process Engineering Guide helps the user to select the appropriate mixer
type for the duty and then recommends criteria to be met for satisfactory
operation.
2
FIELD OF APPLICATION
This Guide applies to Process Engineers in GBH Enterprises worldwide.
3
DEFINITIONS
No specific definitions apply to this Guide.
With the exception of terms used as proper nouns or titles, those terms with initial
capital letters which appear in this document and are not defined above are
defined in the Glossary of Engineering Terms.
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
5. 4
SELECTION OF MIXER TYPE
The following types of mixer are available commercially:
4.1
The Shrouded Turbine
Shrouded turbines are manufactured by Greaves Ltd and Silverson Machines
Ltd. Kinematica supply a machine for producing sub-micron sized dispersions.
They are illustrated in Figure 1 and are recommended for emulsification, polymer
or gel dissolution or 'soft' solid dispersion where the solids content is less than
15% w/w. Detailed recommendations and performance data are given in Clause
5.
FIGURE 1
SHROUDED TURBINE
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
6. 4.2
Turbine Mixers
Turbine mixers, consisting of a vessel and the agitator which are sold as one
unit, are exemplified by the Baker Perkins 'Hydisperser', see Figure 2. These
units are particularly suited to slurrying filter cakes and are suitable for solid
dispersion duties where the solids content exceeds 15% w/w. The standard
system gives poor bulk circulation; Detailed design recommendations and
performance data are given in Clause 6.
FIGURE 2
4.3
TURBINE AND VESSEL COMBINED
Unshrouded Agitators
Unshrouded agitators are often of the sawtooth disc type (see Figure 3 for an
example of the Torrance device). They are recommended for solids dispersion
duties requiring more than 15% w/w of solids. They can give problems with filter
cakes and will be slow to emulsify liquid-liquid systems with a viscosity ratio
greater than 3. Detailed recommendations and performance data are given in
clause 7.
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
7. FIGURE 3
4.4
SAWTOOTH MIXER
In-Line Mixers
Some manufacturers make in-line versions of their shrouded mixers. Oakes Ltd
and Mondo Mix BV supply shrouded mixers with no batch equivalent.
The Oakes mixer with its concentric rows of rotor and stator teeth should ensure
that fluid does not by-pass the active zones. Oakes and Mondo mixers are
particularly effective in the production of foams. Figure 4 illustrates an Oakes
mixer.
FIGURE 4
IN-LINE MIXER (OAKES)
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
8. Other mixer types may be subject to by-passing of the most intensive agitation
zone and a single pass may therefore not be able to meet the requirements.
Such designs should therefore be treated with caution.
4.5
Ultrasonic Homogenizers
These devices, illustrated in Figure 5, perform well in some niche applications,
e.g. the exfoliation of vermiculite, where the caviation process is effective. They
should be effective inline emulsifiers with no restriction on the liquid viscosity
ratio.
FIGURE 5
ULTRASONIC EMULSIFIER IN-LINE
5
SHROUDED TURBINE DATA
5.1
Recommended Duties
Shrouded turbines give the most intense extensional flow fields and are
recommended for the following duties:
(a)
Emulsification
Shrouded turbines are particularly suited when the dispersed phase is the
more viscous. When the ratio of the viscosity of the dispersed to that of
the continuous phase is greater than 3, a shrouded turbine should be
used.
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9. (b)
Polymer or Gel Dissolution
Polymers swell in solvents and in the early stages of dissolution the
process is the breakdown of the viscous gel particles, somewhat
analogous to emulsification. Quite large lumps of elastomeric solids can
be digested by shrouded mixers.
(c)
Polymer Degradation
High molecular weight polymers may be degraded by the action of a
shrouded turbine. Significant heat can be generated in this process.
(d)
Homogenization of Soft Solids
Soft solids, e.g. elastomers, may be dispersed by shrouded turbines to
give a homogeneous paste. They give an intense disruptive action and
should be used whenever possible. Their use is however restricted by
their limited pumping action and by abrasion. Other devices are
recommended for solids concentrations in excess of 15%!w/w.
5.2
Equipment Data
(a)
Rotor Stator Geometry
Typical geometries of the shrouded turbine mixers are shown in Figure 6.
The rotor discharges the fluid through the radial ports in the stator.
Manufacturers supply 'high shear' and 'high pumping' stators; the latter
has fewer, larger ports to allow the impeller to digest coarse lumps and
gives higher circulation rates.
The Greaves mixer includes an axial flow turbine and the circulation rate
may be controlled by a deflector plate which, when raised, allows fluid to
bypass the stator
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10. FIGURE 6
ROTOR STATOR GEOMETRIES
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11. The 'high pumping' head is preferred for most duties and has performed better
than the 'high shear' head for polymer dissolution and degradation. In concept
the 'high pumping' head allows the impeller to digest coarse lumps and circulate
fluid at a higher rate, but should take longer to reach, for example, the same
degree of emulsification because the fluid can bypass the zone of intense
agitation.
The most intense disruptive forces occur in stretching flow where the fluid is
forced between the 'nip' of an advancing rotor blade and a stator port. Because
of this the annular gap between the rotor and stator is not too critical for
emulsification, and polymer dissolution and degradation duties where a gap of
0.25 to 0.5 mm is satisfactory.
(b)
Mixer Size for Standard Duties
For routine applications manufacturers should be approached. They should then
quote the size and power of a mixer for a particular duty. They are, however,
often reluctant to commit themselves to a mixing time and thus to throughput.
Greaves have provided data for sizing impellers for batch emulsification and
polymer dissolution duties which are summarized by the dimensional equation:
The equation may be used to select a proprietary Greaves or Silverson mixer 'off
the shelf' provided the liquid density is 1000 kg/m3 or less. If the liquid density
exceeds 1000 kg/m3, increase the manufacturer's nominal motor rating pro rata
with the density.
Equation 1 implies a rotor to vessel ratio ranging from 0.12 in low viscosity (0.01
N s/m2) to 0.2 in high viscosity (30 N s/m2) batches and represents competitive
sizing for standard duties.
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12. (c)
Mixer Size for Critical Duties
Polymer degradation represents a critical duty because the zone of intense
agitation is only a small fraction of the total volume of the vessel. To achieve
economical batch times rotor to vessel diameter ratios as high as 0.33 have been
required.
Mixers for these duties should be scaled up from trials on small-scale mixers.
The small scale impeller should have the same rotor to stator gap, blade angle
and tip speed as that proposed for the larger scale. The D/T ratio need not be
matched on both scales.
Scale-up then involves the following steps:
(1)
Using a small, variable speed laboratory mixer, establish the tip speed
needed to give the required process effect.
Note that these mixers may not reach a full-scale tip speed.
(2)
From the laboratory results, specify conditions for a trial with a 1 to 5 hp
mixer in a batch up to 50 liters volume. This mixer will approximate
reasonably closely to the full-scale geometry. A cooling coil would be
required for isothermal operation.
(3)
Calculate the full-scale batch mixing time to achieve the required end
result from:
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13. (d)
Mixer Power
The manufacturer should normally be asked to specify the power required for a
new agitator. Note however that manufacturers have not always been able to
predict the power dissipated in unusual liquids.
The power absorbed depends partly on the mixer's behavior as a turbine and
partly on the torque generated in the rotor stator gap. The latter effect becomes
more important as the liquid density increases. For most liquids, including
solutions of low or degraded polymers (e.g. linear polymer Mw less than 400,000,
Mw/Mn < 4), the power of Greaves and Silverson mixers has been predicted to
within 20% by:
If the batch contains a higher polymer (e.g. a linear polymer of Mw of 400,000 or
more and Mw/Mn > 4) additional power is dissipated in extensional flow as the
viscoelastic fluid is forced into the 'nip' between the rotor and stator.
At present it is not possible to predict the additional power dissipation which has
been 2 - 3 times that predicted by the first term of equation 3. It is therefore
recommended that the additional torque be measured on a small-scale with the
rotor stator gap and tip speed as proposed for the full-scale operation. The fullscale torque is then calculated from:
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14. D'
n
n'
= small-scale rotor diameter
= number of blades on full-scale rotor
= number of blades on small-scale rotor.
(e)
Pumping Capacity
There are no published data on pumping capacities of shrouded turbine mixers.
The following tentative correlation is suggested for a 5 hp Greaves mixer:
(f)
Bulk Mixing Times and Heat Transfer
No data are available for bulk mixing times and heat transfer, both of which are
flow sensitive. The high shear impellers typically generate about 1/3 of the flow of
a turbine (W/D = 0.2) at a given speed. It is recommended that the turbine
correlations for mixing time and heat transfer, given in GBHE-PEG-MIX-701,
should be used with the speed term corrected to N/3.
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15. (g)
Shear Rate
The nominal shear rate in the rotor stator gap is given by:
The shear rate is not normally a particularly important parameter in emulsification
and polymer dissolution or degradation. See also GBHE Mixing and Agitation
Manual, Sections D4.4 and D4.5.
6
HIGH SPEED INTERNAL (TURBINE & VESSEL COMBINED) MIXERS
These machines tend to be sold in two performance ranges. The first, typified by
the 'Hydisperser', has a power dissipation of 10-16 kW/m3, and is used by some
operators to liquidize dispersible filter cakes, often before spray drying. The
standard 'Hydisperser' is fitted with a back-swept vaned disc agitator (D/T = 0.45)
in the base. The standard maximum tip speed is 11 m/s with W/D of 0.06-0.07 to
economize on power.
A cruciform baffle cage may be fitted for lower viscosity applications and a
'butterfly' impeller of D/T = 0.65 is also available.
The second performance range includes the Baker Perkins 'Hynetic Mill' and the
Bearsley & Piper 'Speed mixer'. These devices may incorporate mulling wheels
and are better regarded as colloid mills.
6.1
Recommended Duties
(a)
Solids Dispersion
High speed internal mixers can handle 15 - 65% w/w of solids. The upper
limit will depend on the apparent viscosity of the sheared batch and should
be less than 50N s/m2.
(Consult GBHE-PEG-FLO-302 for the interpretation of viscometric data.) The
sheared viscosity has to be measured experimentally as there is no simple
relationship which covers particle shapes, sizes, packing fractions and interaction
effects. A measurement at a shear rate of 300!l/s should cover the shearing
effect expected in the 'Hydisperser'.
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16. To estimate the sheared viscosity of an ideal system of non-inter-acting spherical
particles, the Mooney equation may be used:
k can be as high as 1.9 and will be lower than 1.6 for particles with a wide size
distribution. The limiting viscosity would be reached at 50% v/v solids
(i.e. c = 0.5) with k = 1.6.
(b)
Filter Cake Dispersion
Over 100 dispersible filter cakes have been examined and all are liquidized at
shear rates of 300 l/s or below. All these filter cakes may be dispersed by a high
speed internal mixer in the lower performance range (10-16 kW/m3).
6.2
Equipment Data
(a)
Scale-Up
Trials, involving the manufacturer of the internal mixer, on small-scale machines
are advised. Manufacturers offer a product range of machines operating at a
constant maximum tip speed and scale up is by keeping the tip speed constant
and increasing the batch time in proportion of the linear scale-up factor.
This method works in most cases. Theoretically, if cake disintegration requires
relatively low shear rate (ca. 300 l/s), then power per unit volume should be the
relevant criterion. Following the manufacturers' scale-up method, the power input
per unit volume will decrease with increasing size. This will not usually be critical,
but it is advisable to check the dispensability of the cake at a lower power input
by reducing the tip speed of the small scale
device according to:
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17. Only if the cake fails to disperse satisfactorily at this lower speed should the
manufacturer be requested to supply a non-standard device based on constant
power per unit volume.
(b)
Butterfly vs Vaned Disc Agitators
Butterfly type agitators are used to provide a folding action in some paste mixers.
They do not offer any particular advantage in high speed dispersion duties
although the open structure of the butterfly agitator may assist in starting the
movement of a cake with a high yield stress.
(c)
Power Consumption
The estimation of the agitator power should be the responsibility of the
manufacturer. Starting loads and transients are likely to be more critical than the
power dissipated in the dispersed batch and, in any event, a variable speed
motor may be selected. A power number (Po) of approximately 0.3 would be
expected for the abbreviated vaned disc in an unbaffled vessel at high Reynolds
numbers.
(d)
Pumping Capacity, Heat Transfer and Bulk Mixing Times
The pumping capacity may be estimated for vaned discs of W/D = 0.065 as:
Mixing times will then be of the order of 3 times those expected for standard
turbines working in baffled vessels at the same speed.
Tangential velocities are similar to those generated by a 2-bladed paddle (W/D =
0.33) and this 'pseudo geometry' should be used for heat transfer calculation,
using the method given in GBHE-PEG-MIX-701.
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18. (e)
Shear Rates
For information on shear rates, consult the GBHE Mixing and Agitation Manual,
Sections D4.4 and D4.5.
7
HIGH SPEED UNSHROUDED (SAWTOOTH) AGITATORS
7.1
Duties
The major application of saw toothed impellers is in paints manufacture.
(a)
Solids Dispersion into Liquid
A major application of the sawtooth mixer is in the dispersion of 15-65% w/w
solids in a liquid resulting in a final batch viscosity of up to 25 N s/m2.
The mixers will break flocculated pigments down to the basic particle size in the
range 1-3 µm and can thus disperse modern, more loosely aggregated pigments
into paint mill base without the need for further milling. They will not, however,
break up strongly aggregated or fused particles. No formal methods exist for
defining aggregate strengths. It is recommended that the agitator manufacturer
be consulted and that small-scale trials are performed in doubtful situations.
The mixers can break up large lumps of solid so that even in the more doubtful
situations they could be used to prepare a feed for a colloid mill.
The mixers are effective at tip speeds greater than 20 m/s; GBHE prefer the
range 25- 36 m/s. The recommended D/T ratios range from 0.25 in low viscosity
(1 N s/m2) batches to 0.5 in high viscosity (25 N s/m2) applications. Figure 7
shows the preferred range of geometries for the sawtooth disc impellers in a
tank.
(b)
Emulsification
The sawtooth mixer is not recommended for liquid mixing duties. It should,
however, be effective in blending or emulsification of liquids into concentrated
solid dispersions and is recommended for this duty.
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19. (c)
Polymer Dissolution
The sawtooth mixer is not recommended for polymer dissolution as it can give a
stratified batch in polymer systems where viscoelastic forces oppose vortex
formation.
(d)
Filter Cake Dispersion
Sawtooth mixers are not recommended for filter cake dispersion. They can suffer
from stratification problems and these would prevent the lifting of the undispersed
solid from the base of the vessel.
FIGURE 7 SAWTOOTH IMPELLER RANGE OF GEOMETRIES (AFTER
TORRANCE)
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20. 7.2
Equipment Data
(a)
Scale-Up
Using values of D/T and tip speed recommended in 7.1 (a), scale-up from smallscale experiments at constant D/T and tip speed is recommended. The batch
mixing time will increase in proportion to the linear scale.
(b)
Power
Figure 8 shows the relationship between Power number and Reynolds number
for sawtooth and other high speed impellers in baffled vessels and for a Torrance
mixer and a plain disc working in unbaffled vessels.
Hydraulic drives are usually fitted and are recommended for application with
these limited power data as they cannot be overloaded and allow mixing speeds
to be changed in a batch.
A Paints manufacturer produced the power data shown in Table 1. The apparent
power numbers near 0.1 are because the two of the three mixers are operating in
vortex aerated conditions at the highest tip speeds. Using this data they have
been able to replace the hydraulic drives with two speed electric motors which
are easier to maintain. If overloaded (for example by an increase in velocity
which causes loss of vortex) the motor trips to the lower speed. The trip power
may then be calculated from Figure 8. This procedure should only be attempted
with systems of less than 3 N s/m viscosity and then only in consultation with the
manufacturer.
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21. FIGURE 8
(c)
MIXER POWER CURVES
Pumping Capacity, Heat Transfer and Bulk Mixing Times
An estimate of the radial pumping rate may be made from:
Q = 0.15 N D3
. . . . . . (10)
this is about one sixth of that of a turbine with W/D = 0.2.
Heat transfer is influenced by circumferential velocities and these in turn are
related to the effective vortex depth. The vortex factor, g x/D2N2, is about one
third of that of a 2-bladed flat paddle with W/D = 0.33. Approximate heat transfer
coefficients could be estimated assuming a standard paddle geometry operating
at 1/3 times the speed of the saw toothed impeller.
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22. Scale-up should be on the basis of constant tip speed and bulk mixing times will
increase in proportion to the linear scale, i.e. be proportional to volume to the
one-third power:
t'' = t' (V'' / V')1/3
(d)
. . . . . . (11)
Blade Geometry
Experience indicates that there is little to choose between the different sawtooth
blade configurations offered by the various manufacturers.
Sawtooth impellers are more effective than plain or perforated discs in the
creation of fine pigment dispersions. We have found that a circular saw blade is
as effective as a proprietary device in the dispersion of pigment base. The
proprietary devices incorporate blades with a vertical surface oriented
circumferentially (along the direction of rotation) and these blades will be more
effective in the initial break-up of coarse lumps by impaction.
(e)
Shear Rates
Peak shear rates for sawtooth impellers are caused by shear and elongational
flows. To determine the range over which peak shear rates apply, reference
should be made to the GBHE Mixing and Agitation Manual, Sections D4.4 and
D4.5.
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23. TABLE 1 POWER INSTALLED FOR TORRANCE SAWTOOTH IMPELLERS
Batch Density
Viscosity
1300 - 1440 kg/m3
1 N s/m2
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24. DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS PROCESS ENGINEERING GUIDE
This Process Engineering Guide makes reference to the following documents:
GBHE ENGINEERING GUIDES
GBH Enterprises
Glossary of Engineering Terms
(referred to in Clause 3)
GBHE-PEG-MIX-701
Mixing of Miscible Liquids
(referred to in 5.2 (f) and 6.1 (d))
GBHE-PEG-FLO-302
Interpretation and Correlation of Viscometric Data
(referred to in 6.1 (a))
OTHER GBHE DOCUMENTS
GBH Enterprises
Mixing and Agitation Manual
(referred to in 5.2 (g), 6.2 (e) and 7.2!(e)).
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