Heterothallic species have sexes that reside in different individuals. . The term is applied particularly to distinguish heterothallic fungi, which require two compatible partners to produce sexual spores, from homothallic ones, which are capable of sexual reproduction from a single organism.
Introduction,In some fungi ,true sexual cycle comprising of nuclear fusion and meiosis is absent.
These fungi derive the benefits of sexuality through a cycle know as parasexuaL cycle.
First Reported by- Gudio Pontecorvo and J.A.Roper(1952)
Parasexual cycle was reported in
Aspergillus nidulans,the imperfect stage of Emericella nidulans.
Since then parasexual cycle has been discovered not only in several members of Deutromycetes but also in fungi belonging to Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes.
DEFINETION - Parasexuality is defined as a cycle in which Plasmogamy, Karyogamy and Meiosis [Haploidization] take place in sequence but not at a specified time or at specified points in the life cycle of an organism.
Generally parasexual cycle occurs in those fungi in which true sexual cycle does not take place.
Parasexualcycle also know as Somatic recombination. PASEXUALITY ALSO REPORTED IN SOME ORGANISMS- Aspergillus nigar, Penicillium crysogenum, STEPS OF PARASEXUAL CYCLE - 1) ESTABLISHMENT OF HETEROKARYOSIS, 2) Formation of Heterozygous DIPLOIDS, 3) occasional mitotic crossing-over during multiplication of diploid nuclei, 4)occasional haplodization through aneuploidy , COMPARISION BETWEEN SEXUAL AND PARASEXUAL CYCLE, IMPORTANCE OF PARASEXUALITY, C0NCLUSION
A chemical substance that is produced in one portion of an organism and moves by diffusion or transport to another portion of same individual or to other individual of same species where it induce specific response is called a hormone.
Introduction,In some fungi ,true sexual cycle comprising of nuclear fusion and meiosis is absent.
These fungi derive the benefits of sexuality through a cycle know as parasexuaL cycle.
First Reported by- Gudio Pontecorvo and J.A.Roper(1952)
Parasexual cycle was reported in
Aspergillus nidulans,the imperfect stage of Emericella nidulans.
Since then parasexual cycle has been discovered not only in several members of Deutromycetes but also in fungi belonging to Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes.
DEFINETION - Parasexuality is defined as a cycle in which Plasmogamy, Karyogamy and Meiosis [Haploidization] take place in sequence but not at a specified time or at specified points in the life cycle of an organism.
Generally parasexual cycle occurs in those fungi in which true sexual cycle does not take place.
Parasexualcycle also know as Somatic recombination. PASEXUALITY ALSO REPORTED IN SOME ORGANISMS- Aspergillus nigar, Penicillium crysogenum, STEPS OF PARASEXUAL CYCLE - 1) ESTABLISHMENT OF HETEROKARYOSIS, 2) Formation of Heterozygous DIPLOIDS, 3) occasional mitotic crossing-over during multiplication of diploid nuclei, 4)occasional haplodization through aneuploidy , COMPARISION BETWEEN SEXUAL AND PARASEXUAL CYCLE, IMPORTANCE OF PARASEXUALITY, C0NCLUSION
A chemical substance that is produced in one portion of an organism and moves by diffusion or transport to another portion of same individual or to other individual of same species where it induce specific response is called a hormone.
Algae are chlorophyll bearing autotrophic bodies with thalloid plant body. Thallus may be unicellular to multicellular, microscopic or macroscopic in structure.
Fungi get their nutrition by absorbing organic compounds from the environment. Fungi are heterotrophic: they rely solely on carbon obtained from other organisms for their metabolism and nutrition. Fungi have evolved in a way that allows many of them to use a large variety of organic substrates for growth, including simple compounds such as nitrate, ammonia, acetate, or ethanol. Their mode of nutrition defines the role of fungi in their environment.
Fungi obtain nutrients in three different ways:
They decompose dead organic matter. A saprotroph is an organism that obtains its nutrients from non-living organic matter, usually dead and decaying plant or animal matter, by absorbing soluble organic compounds. Saprotrophic fungi play very important roles as recyclers in ecosystem energy flow and biogeochemical cycles. Saprophytic fungi, such as shiitake (Lentinula edodes) and oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus), decompose dead plant and animal tissue by releasing enzymes from hyphal tips. In this way, they recycle organic materials back into the surrounding environment. Because of these abilities, fungi are the primary decomposers in forests.
They feed on living hosts. As parasites, fungi live in or on other organisms and get their nutrients from their host. Parasitic fungi use enzymes to break down living tissue, which may cause illness in the host. Disease-causing fungi are parasitic. Recall that parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between organisms of different species in which one, the parasite, benefits from a close association with the other, the host, which is harmed.
They live mutualistically with other organisms. Mutualistic fungi live harmlessly with other living organisms. Recall that mutualism is an interaction between individuals of two different species, in which both individuals benefit.
The "Telome theory" of Walter Zimmermann (1930, 1952) is the most accepted theory that is based on fossil record and synthesizes the major steps in the evolution of vascular plants.
It describes how the primitive type of vascular plants developed from Rhynia like plants.
The algae reproduce by vegetative, asexual, and sexual methods. Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation, where each fragment develops into a thallus. Asexual reproduction is by the production of flagellated zoospores which on germination give rise to new plants.
Sex life in fungi is not less fascinating than in other organisms. Heterosexuality is a matter of pleasure to explore the diversity of sex in fungi along with its cause and consequences. You can find a pleasure to go through the content.
fungi: heterothallism, heterokaryosis, parasexuality,fungi sex hormones, Mycorrhizae, Types of mycorrhizae, Defence mechanism in plants- structural and biochemical.
Algae are chlorophyll bearing autotrophic bodies with thalloid plant body. Thallus may be unicellular to multicellular, microscopic or macroscopic in structure.
Fungi get their nutrition by absorbing organic compounds from the environment. Fungi are heterotrophic: they rely solely on carbon obtained from other organisms for their metabolism and nutrition. Fungi have evolved in a way that allows many of them to use a large variety of organic substrates for growth, including simple compounds such as nitrate, ammonia, acetate, or ethanol. Their mode of nutrition defines the role of fungi in their environment.
Fungi obtain nutrients in three different ways:
They decompose dead organic matter. A saprotroph is an organism that obtains its nutrients from non-living organic matter, usually dead and decaying plant or animal matter, by absorbing soluble organic compounds. Saprotrophic fungi play very important roles as recyclers in ecosystem energy flow and biogeochemical cycles. Saprophytic fungi, such as shiitake (Lentinula edodes) and oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus), decompose dead plant and animal tissue by releasing enzymes from hyphal tips. In this way, they recycle organic materials back into the surrounding environment. Because of these abilities, fungi are the primary decomposers in forests.
They feed on living hosts. As parasites, fungi live in or on other organisms and get their nutrients from their host. Parasitic fungi use enzymes to break down living tissue, which may cause illness in the host. Disease-causing fungi are parasitic. Recall that parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between organisms of different species in which one, the parasite, benefits from a close association with the other, the host, which is harmed.
They live mutualistically with other organisms. Mutualistic fungi live harmlessly with other living organisms. Recall that mutualism is an interaction between individuals of two different species, in which both individuals benefit.
The "Telome theory" of Walter Zimmermann (1930, 1952) is the most accepted theory that is based on fossil record and synthesizes the major steps in the evolution of vascular plants.
It describes how the primitive type of vascular plants developed from Rhynia like plants.
The algae reproduce by vegetative, asexual, and sexual methods. Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation, where each fragment develops into a thallus. Asexual reproduction is by the production of flagellated zoospores which on germination give rise to new plants.
Sex life in fungi is not less fascinating than in other organisms. Heterosexuality is a matter of pleasure to explore the diversity of sex in fungi along with its cause and consequences. You can find a pleasure to go through the content.
fungi: heterothallism, heterokaryosis, parasexuality,fungi sex hormones, Mycorrhizae, Types of mycorrhizae, Defence mechanism in plants- structural and biochemical.
See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342360535
DISASTER MANAGEMENT Compiled Notes for Unit Lectures
Method · June 2020
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DISASTER MANAGEMENT
BY
DR. BENARD LANGO
Benard.lango@gmail.com
Compiled Notes for Unit Lectures
Disaster Management – Compiled Lecture Notes: Dr. Benard Lango 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................4
1. 0 Common Terminologies.....................................................................................................................4
1.2 Characteristics of Disasters.................................................................................................................5
1.3 Types of Disasters...............................................................................................................................6
1.3.1 Natural Disasters..........................................................................................................................6
1.3.2 Human-Made Disasters................................................................................................................6
1.3.3 Incidences of Mass Trauma..........................................................................................................7
1.4 Differences between Emergencies and Disasters...............................................................................7
1.5 Disaster Management Life Cycle.........................................................................................................8
CHAPTER 2:RISKS AND VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT........................................................................10
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................10
2.2 Hazards and Hazard Assessment ......................................................................................................11
2.2.1 Common Types of Hazards ........................................................................................................11
2.2.2 Hazard Control ...........................................................................................................................11
2.2.3 Hazard Classification ...............................................................
Species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups. The biological species concept has been prevalent in the evolutionary literature for the last several decades and is emphasized in many college-level biology courses. It is probably the species concept most familiar to biologists in diverse fields, such as conservation biology, forestry, fisheries, and wildlife management. Species defined by the biological species concept have also been championed as units of conservation. The species concept for most phycologists is based on the morphological characters and hence the term ‘species’ means morphospecies. On the other hand, for evolutionary biologists, the term means biological species that can be defined as a reproductive community of populations (reproductively isolated from others) that occupy a specific niche in Nature.
What is the difference between a dinoflagellate and a Stramenopi.pdfmallik3000
What is the difference between a dinoflagellate and a Stramenopile?
What is a shared character of the radiolarians and Foraminfera?
How long is the haploid phase of Rhizopus compared to the length of the diploid phase?
What are the three main sexually reproducing fungal divisions listed in the manual?
What is the difference between a dinoflagellate and a Stramenopile?
What is a shared character of the radiolarians and Foraminfera?
How long is the haploid phase of Rhizopus compared to the length of the diploid phase?
What are the three main sexually reproducing fungal divisions listed in the manual?
What is the difference between a dinoflagellate and a Stramenopile?
What is a shared character of the radiolarians and Foraminfera?
How long is the haploid phase of Rhizopus compared to the length of the diploid phase?
What are the three main sexually reproducing fungal divisions listed in the manual?
Solution
1. Difference between Dinoflagellate and heterokont
Dinoflagellate :
2. Most are marine plankton, but they are common in freshwater habitats, as well.
3. Dinoflagellates are considered to be protists, with their own division, Dinoflagellata
4. Dinoflagellates are unicellular and possess two dissimilar flagella arising from the ventral
cell side.
Heterokont
2. What is a shared character of the radiolarians and Foraminfera?
The character of the radiolarians and Foraminfera is “amoeboids with complex shells”
3. How long is the haploid phase of Rhizopus compared to the length of the diploid phase?
Haploid life history of Rhizopus (Asexual Reproduction)
Once the zygote undergoes meiosis, germination occurs forming mycelia and sporangia with
opposite mating strains, (+) and (-). The sproangia produces mitospores which through mitosis
developes into gametangia, or sex organs. When the gametangia fuse, syngamy occurs and
produces a zygote (2n). The zygote then goes through meiosis to form new 1n spores and the life
cycle repeats.
Diploid life history of Rhizopus (Sexual Reproduction)
The zygospores are the only diploid phase. The zygospore forms from two special haploid
hyphae of opposite mating types that touch due to hormones and being in close proximity of each
other. The two cytoplasms intermingle, also known as plasmogamy. As this occurs the nuclei of
both parents enter the conjunction, causing the resting spore to develop. Karyogamy is the term
used to describe the fusion of the two nuclei. After the zygospore has fully formed, meiosis
occurs and haploid spores are formed and dispersed. The zygospore can become dormant for
severalmonths at a time. Meiosis still occurs and a sporangium similar to the asexually produced
sporangium is created when the zygospore finally cracks open.
4. W`hat are the three main sexually reproducing fungal divisions listed in the manual?
Sexual reproduction in the fungi consists of three sequential stages
Plasmogamy
Karyogamy
Meiosis.
Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Possible signs and symptoms include a lump, abnormal bleeding, prolonged cough, unexplained weight loss, and a change in bowel movements. While these symptoms may indicate cancer, they can also have other causes. Over 100 types of cancers affect humans.
AAS is an analytical technique used to determine how much of certain elements are in a sample. It uses the principle that atoms (and ions) can absorb light at a specific, unique wavelength. When this specific wavelength of light is provided, the energy (light) is absorbed by the atom.
Strain improvement is one element of fermentation process management. It is the process of increasing the productivity of a microorganism by improving or selecting for a more productive phenotype.
Eukaryotic transcription is carried out in the nucleus of the cell and proceeds in three sequential stages: initiation, elongation, and termination. Eukaryotes require transcription factors to first bind to the promoter region and then help recruit the appropriate polymerase.
A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence of an organism. Mutations can result from errors in DNA replication during cell division, exposure to mutagens or a viral infection.2
A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that transfects a specific antigen-coding DNA sequence into the cells of an organism as a mechanism to induce an immune response.
DNA vaccines work by injecting genetically engineered plasmid containing the DNA sequence encoding the antigen(s) against which an immune response is sought, so the cells directly produce the antigen, thus causing a protective immunological response.
Bioremediation is a branch of biotechnology that employs the use of living organisms, like microbes and bacteria, in the removal of contaminants, pollutants, and toxins from soil, water, and other environments.
radioactivity is the act of emitting radiation spontaneously. This is done by an atomic nucleus that, for some reason, is unstable; it "wants" to give up some energy in order to shift to a more stable configuration.
Hypersensitivity reactions are exaggerated or inappropriate immunologic responses occurring in response to an antigen or allergen. Type I, II and III hypersensitivity reactions are known as immediate hypersensitivity reactions because they occur within 24 hours of exposure to the antigen or allergen.
Diphtheria is a serious infection caused by strains of bacteria called Corynebacterium diphtheriae that make toxin. It can lead to difficulty breathing, heart rhythm problems, and even death. CDC recommends vaccines for infants, children, teens, and adults to prevent diphtheria. Causes and How It Spreads.
Clostridium is a genus of anaerobic, Gram-positive bacteria. Species of Clostridium inhabit soils and the intestinal tract of animals, including humans. This genus includes several significant human pathogens, including the causative agents of botulism and tetanus.
transposon, class of genetic elements that can “jump” to different locations within a genome. Although these elements are frequently called “jumping genes,” they are always maintained in an integrated site in the genome. In addition, most transposons eventually become inactive and no longer move.1
Gene regulation is the process used to control the timing, location and amount in which genes are expressed. The process can be complicated and is carried out by a variety of mechanisms, including through regulatory proteins and chemical modification of DNA.
Genetic recombination (genetic reshuffling) is the exchange of genetic material between different organisms which leads to production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either parent. The process occurs naturally and can also be carried out in the lab.
Mycotoxins are naturally occurring toxins produced by certain moulds (fungi) and can be found in food.
The moulds grow on a variety of different crops and foodstuffs including cereals, nuts, spices, dried fruits, apples and coffee beans, often under warm and humid conditions.
Mycotoxins can cause a variety of adverse health effects and pose a serious health threat to both humans and livestock.
Microbiology essentially began with the development of the microscope. Although others may have seen microbes before him, it was Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch draper whose hobby was lens grinding and making microscopes, who was the first to provide proper documentation of his observations.
We can make various products like soup powder, papad, nuggets, chips, preserve, candy etc. using different mushrooms. products like pasta, noodles etc. by supplementing with fresh or dried mushroom powder.
The microbes are highly useful for making vaccines and antibiotics for making medicines. It is a well-known fact that harmful pathogens that cause different diseases by infecting our body. The antibiotics and medicines would help us in fighting these diseases and infections.
A genetically modified organism (GMO) is any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. The exact definition of a genetically modified organism and what constitutes genetic engineering varies, with the most common being an organism altered in a way that "does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination". A wide variety of organisms have been genetically modified (GM), from animals to plants and microorganisms.
Biofertilizers are living microbes that enhance plant nutrition by either by mobilizing or increasing nutrient availability in soils. Various microbial taxa including beneficial bacteria and fungi are currently used as biofertilizers, as they successfully colonize the rhizosphere, rhizoplane or root interior.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
2. Synopsis
1.Introduction
2.Brief History
3.Types of heterothallism
A. Morphological Heterothallism
B. Physiological heterothallism
a. Two-allele heterothallism
b. Multiple-allele heterothallism
i. Bipolar multiple-allele heterothallism
ii. Tetrapolar multiple-allele heterothallism
iii. Octapolar multiple-allele heterothallism
4.Heterothallism in Lower Fungi
5.Heterothallism in Higher Fungi
6.References
3. Introduction
• In a fungal species presence of hyphae of two different
mating types i.e. (+) & (-) strain is known as
heterothallic & the phenomenon is known as
heterothallism.
• It derived from the Greek words-hetero means other or
different & thallus means shoot or thallus.
• The hyphae are morphologically similar but
physiologically different.
• There are no difference between the mycelium of male &
female. They perform difference only in their sexual
behavior.
5. Brief History
• The term heterothallism is first proposed by the famous
scientist Blakeslee (1904).On the basis of his experiments,
he suggested that some members of fungi are monoecious
(homothallic) & while others are dioecious (heterothallic).
• In heterothallic species fusion takes place between hyphae
of two opposite strains which is morphologically similar but
physiologically different, such type are called (+) & (-)
strains of hyphae.
• Dodge (1920) in Ascomycetes any strain can male & female
branches. Craigie & Buller (1941) species of
Hymenomycetes & Gastromycetes are of both types i.e.
homothallic & heterothallc. White House (1951) two
strains are also found in Smuts which represents
heterothallism.
7. Types of heterothallism
1. Morphological Heterothallism
It may be defined as the condition when
morphologically different male & female sex organs are
produced in two closely associated mycelia.
The two sex organs or gametes are so morphologically
different that it is easier to term one of them as male &
the other as female.
Example-Achlya ambisexualis, Blastocladeia
variabilis,Phytophthora parasitica etc.
8. • In this, the interacting thalli differ in mating type or
incompatibility, irrespective of the presence or absence
of the sex organs or gametes.
• This means that sexual reproduction takes place by two
morphologically similar but physiologically different
hyphae.
A. Two-allele Heterothallism
• When the nuclei of both the mating types are different
in genetic characters, is known as Two-allele
heterothallism.
• In these type compatibility is governed by a pair of
alleles represented by (A) & (a) located at single same
locus of chromosome.
• Due to the dominance of (A) over (a), (A) is
represented by (+) & (a) by (-).
2. Physiological Heterothallism
10. • In this type, one or more than two alleles determine the
sexual compatibility.
• This may be located at one or two loci, because of the
larger number of alleles involved inthis type of
heterothallism.
I. Bipolar Multiple-allele heterothallism
• This type of heterothallism is controlled by multiple
alleles at a single locus, instead of a pair of alleles.
• For example, if the locus is named as (L), the multiple
alleles will be designed as (L1,L2,L3,L4,….Ln) & these
are present on the single locus (L).
b. Multiple allele Heterothallism
11. N
N
N
N
C C C
C C C
C C C
C C C
L1 L2
L
L3 L4
L1
L2
L3
L4
Fig.-Bipolar Multiple-allele Heterothallism
12. • This type of heterothallism is characteristic of
Basidiomycetes except rusts.
• Multiple-allele-the compatible factor is present on two
loci (L1) & (L2) of two chromatids of chromosome.
• It can be represented as (A1B1) & (A2B2).
ii) Tetrapolar Multiple-allele Heterothallism
13. N
N
N
N
NFC NFC
NFC NFC
NFC NFC
NFC NFC
C
C
C
C
A1B1
A1B1
A2B2
A2B1
A2B2A2B1
A1B2
A1B2
Fig.- Tetrapolar Multiple-allele Heterothallism
14. iii) Octapolar Multiple-allele Heterothallism
• In this type of heterothallism,there is only
one report of the occurrence of octapolar
heterothallism in Basediomycetous fungus.
• In these fungal incompatibility is controlled
by three factors (A,B,&C)
15. Heterothallism in Lower Fungi
• In this, the zygospores (zygosporangium) germinates
after a rest period & form a germ sporangium.
• In mucorales generally the heterothallism is occurs in
the member of the family Mucoraceae like- Mucor
mucedo , Rhizopus stolonifers.
16. Mucor
Systematic Position
Kingdom – Fungi
Group – Eumycota
Division – Zygomycota
Sub division – Zygomycotina
Class – Zygomycetes
Order – Mucorales
Family – Mucoraceae
Genus – Mucor
Occurrence – They occurs in bread& sugary substance
like- jam , jelly. It is saprophytic which is occurs on rotten
fruit, vegetable & organic food material & also on bread &
syrup.
18. Reproduction
• Vegetative reproduction – It takes place by
the mean of fragmentation.
• Asexual reproduction
a) By Oidia
b) By Chlamydomonas
c) By spores
• Sexual reproduction
22. Heterothallism in Higher Fungi
• In higher fungi the heterothallism occurs in the
members of the family Ascomycetes.
• In ascomycetes the mating systems are regulated
with much greater precision than lower fungi.
27. References
• Botany-Fungi -Vashista B.R. & Sinha A.K.
• Textbook of Microbiology by R.P.Singh .
• Textbook of Microbiology by R.C. Dubey &
Maheshwari.
• Textbook of Botany by Dr. Y.D.Tyagi.
• www. Google.com
