In the continuous desire to find suitable alternative, renewable and biodegradable source of oil for commercial diesel Luffa aegyptiaca oil was converted into biodiesel through transesterification reaction using heterogeneous hydrotalcite particles from MgO/Al2O3/Kaolin clay as catalyst and methanol as solvent at controlled reaction conditions. The characterization results of pure Luffa aegyptiaca oil and biodiesel samples was obtained and compared: moisture content 0.0045 %-0.0034 %, ash content 0.00 %-0.02 %, saponification value 194.5 - 61.43, acid value 9.65-0.144, freezing point 5.00 - 30.00 min, pour point 5.00-3.00 min, density 0.969 g/mL-0.889 g/mL, while the flash point gave 349 k-345 k, specific gravity 0.865 g/mL-0.851 g/mL, and viscosity 34.95 Nsm-2- 5.82 Nsm-2 accordingly. The catalyst sample (MgO/Al2O3/Kaolin clay) after characterized using X-Ray Diffractometer, showed promising surface activity and selectivity on both the calcined and uncalcined catalyst. The optimum transesterification reaction conditions was obtained at 333 k, 6 hours reaction time and 6% catalyst concentration. The reaction conditions had direct effect on percentage yield of the biodiesel product with maximum yield of 79.61 % obtained for untreated oil but 81.27 % for treated oil at 333 k, 3 hours reaction time and 2 % catalyst concentration. FT-IR spectra analysis of biodiesel oil revealed decrease in frequency band of the hydroxyl group (O-H) between 1780 cm-1 and 1700 cm-1 and its subsequent absence at 1730 cm-1. The Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrophotometer composition for pure Luffa aegyptiaca oil and Biodiesel oil showed that free fatty acid was converted to fatty acid methyl esters. Thus, transesterification of Luffa aegyptiaca oil sample using MgO/Al2O3/Kaolin clay heterogeneous catalyst was a success.
Non-Isothermal Kinetic Analysis of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Pellets by Ther...Bemgba Nyakuma
Paper presented at the 18th Conference of Process Integration, Modelling and Optimisation for Energy Saving and Pollution Reduction (PRES Conference)
PRES’15 conference, 22-27 Aug 2015, Kuching, Malaysia.
Jatropha curcas oil (JCO) and karanja oil have been identified for the comparative study of production of renewable energy sources i.e. biodiesel as well as physico-chemical properties of biodiesel for its potentiality. Enzyme Novozyme 435 (Candida antarctica) is used as biocatalyst (8%) for the conversion in both the cases with 5:1 molar ratio of alcohol to oil for 8 hours with mixing intensity of 600 rpm at 550C. JCO shows higher conversion efficiency at these parameters than karanja oil. Biodiesels obtained from JCO and karanja oil are analysed based on physico-chemical properties like specific gravity, kinematic viscosity, density, calorific value, cetane number, flash point, cloud point and acid number. With regard to specific gravity, kinematic viscosity, density, calorific value and cetane number, the JCO biodiesel shows higher values than karanja biodiesel whereas flash point and cloud point of karanja biodiesel are higher than JCO biodiesel. With respect to the compositional analysis, JCO biodiesel contains 95.67% methyl ester but karanja biodiesel contains 92.57% methyl ester. Apart from this, triglycerides (TG), diglycerides (DG) and monoglycerides (MG) content of JCO and karanja oil biodiesel are 1.68%, 1.08%, 2.68% and 1.89%, 2.75% and 3.69% respectively.
Non-Isothermal Kinetic Analysis of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Pellets by Ther...Bemgba Nyakuma
Paper presented at the 18th Conference of Process Integration, Modelling and Optimisation for Energy Saving and Pollution Reduction (PRES Conference)
PRES’15 conference, 22-27 Aug 2015, Kuching, Malaysia.
Jatropha curcas oil (JCO) and karanja oil have been identified for the comparative study of production of renewable energy sources i.e. biodiesel as well as physico-chemical properties of biodiesel for its potentiality. Enzyme Novozyme 435 (Candida antarctica) is used as biocatalyst (8%) for the conversion in both the cases with 5:1 molar ratio of alcohol to oil for 8 hours with mixing intensity of 600 rpm at 550C. JCO shows higher conversion efficiency at these parameters than karanja oil. Biodiesels obtained from JCO and karanja oil are analysed based on physico-chemical properties like specific gravity, kinematic viscosity, density, calorific value, cetane number, flash point, cloud point and acid number. With regard to specific gravity, kinematic viscosity, density, calorific value and cetane number, the JCO biodiesel shows higher values than karanja biodiesel whereas flash point and cloud point of karanja biodiesel are higher than JCO biodiesel. With respect to the compositional analysis, JCO biodiesel contains 95.67% methyl ester but karanja biodiesel contains 92.57% methyl ester. Apart from this, triglycerides (TG), diglycerides (DG) and monoglycerides (MG) content of JCO and karanja oil biodiesel are 1.68%, 1.08%, 2.68% and 1.89%, 2.75% and 3.69% respectively.
The oil palm industry in Malaysia provides a high economic return to the country. Currently empty fruit bunch (EFB) is one of the solid wastes which is produced daily but have limited use whereby it is usually left as plantation site to act as an organic fertilizer for the plants to ensure the sustainability of fresh fruit bunch (FFB). However, this waste material have the potential to be transformed into high value-added products such as bioethanol, acids and compost using advanced biotechnology technique. The major drawback in biomass technology is the difficulty of degrading the material in a short period of time. Therefore, a pretreatment step such as hot-compressed water treatment is required to break the lignocellulosic compound to easily accessible carbon sources for further use to produce bioethanol. This research proposes an environmental friendly technology which could convert waste biomass to valuable bio-based chemicals and fuels which could be transferred easily to rural areas and small medium industries for wealth creation and for their own use in their agricultural fields.
Biodiesel production from neem oil –an alternate approachIJERA Editor
In this study, neem oil which is one of the abundant non-edible oils in India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and bangladesh is used for biodiesel production. The conventional 2-step transesterification production of biodiesel using sulphuric acid and potassium hydroxide as catalysts is carried out. The optimum process parameters like reaction time, temperature, catalyst loading and methanol-oil molar ratio were investigated with respect to maximum yield. A maximum yield of 88% biodiesel is obtained via this method. A novel technique to produce biodiesel via complete hydrolysis followed by acid esterification is developed. Optimum reaction conditions were found to be 100ml 0.5N sulphuric acid loading, reaction temperature of 40ºC and reaction time of 2 hours. This resulted in a maximum FFA of 82%. Then acid esterification was carried out at the following reaction conditions of 0.55:1 v/v methanol-oil-ratio, 0.5% v/v H2SO4 acid catalyst loading, 50˚C and 4 hours reaction time. A maximum biodiesel yield of 92% was obtained by this method. The viscosity of biodiesel produced by this method as well as the other physicochemical properties, were found to be in compliance with international standard.
Synthesis of bioethanol from tamarind seeds using marine strain of Saccharomy...Asheesh Padiyar
Bioethanol can be used as a second generation advanced biofuels. Currently it is mainly produced from starch but bioethanol production from starch leads to competition for food, land and price. Therefore, ligno-cellulosic agricultural residues are potentially used for bioethanol production to solve such challenges. In the present work acid pretreated tamarind kernel powder is used as a ligno-cellulosic biomass for bioethanol production using marine yeast. Greater osmosis tolerance, greater special chemical productivity and production of industrial enzymes are the unique characteristics of marine yeast over terrestrial strains. Hence, marine yeasts have great
potential to be applied in various industries. Therefore, the marine strain of saccharomyces cerevisiaewas isolated from marine water and was used for bioethanol production and the bioethanol yield was optimized using the full factorial design methodology. The amount of Bioethanol yield on day 2 was found to be 2.3g/l and the interaction effects were also studied using Minitab 17 software.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Effects of Extraction Methods and Transesterification Temperature on the Qual...IJRTEMJOURNAL
Jatropha curcas oil has been considered a promising alternative fuel for compressing ignition
engines. However, its qualities and utilizations have been affected by so many factors such as extraction
methods, temperatures, reactants, etc. As a result, this work was aimed at studying the effects of extraction
methods and transesterification temperature on the qualities of biodiesel from jatropha oil seeds. Three methods
of extraction (milling hydraulic, and defatting; milling, toasting, and defatting: and sand roasting, dehulling,
milling and defatting) were employed to produce the three different samples A, B, and C respectively. The yields
of the oils obtained were measured. Oil qualities of the oil like: specific gravity, viscosity, free fatty acid,
saponification value, peroxide value, pH and iodine value content of the oil were determined. The extracted oils
were subjected to transesterification process at a various temperature by treatment with ethanol using
potassium hydroxide as catalyst. Average yield of biodiesel was 70.62 %, 74.33% and 79.41% of raw oil from
sample A, B and C respectively. The specific gravity, viscosity, free fatty acid, saponification value, peroxide
value, pH and iodine value content of the oil of sample were A (0.904, 3.240mm2/s, 0.431% ,64.80mg/kg,
2.00mg/kg, 7.38 and 140.61, respectively); sample B (0.903, 3.130mm2/s, 0.423%, 58.91mg/kg, 11.00mg/kg,
7.02 and 55.33, respectively); sample C (0.908, 3.324mm2/s, 0.368%, 52.73mg/kg, 2.00mg/kg, 8.50 and 143.65
respectively). The result revealed that different extraction methods and transesterification temperature have
actually affected the quantity and quality of biodiesel produced from Jatropha oil seeds. Processing of the oil
seeds by roasting dehulling, milling and defatting and transesterification at 700C gave the highest oil yield and
the most acceptable chemical properties.
The oil palm industry in Malaysia provides a high economic return to the country. Currently empty fruit bunch (EFB) is one of the solid wastes which is produced daily but have limited use whereby it is usually left as plantation site to act as an organic fertilizer for the plants to ensure the sustainability of fresh fruit bunch (FFB). However, this waste material have the potential to be transformed into high value-added products such as bioethanol, acids and compost using advanced biotechnology technique. The major drawback in biomass technology is the difficulty of degrading the material in a short period of time. Therefore, a pretreatment step such as hot-compressed water treatment is required to break the lignocellulosic compound to easily accessible carbon sources for further use to produce bioethanol. This research proposes an environmental friendly technology which could convert waste biomass to valuable bio-based chemicals and fuels which could be transferred easily to rural areas and small medium industries for wealth creation and for their own use in their agricultural fields.
Biodiesel production from neem oil –an alternate approachIJERA Editor
In this study, neem oil which is one of the abundant non-edible oils in India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and bangladesh is used for biodiesel production. The conventional 2-step transesterification production of biodiesel using sulphuric acid and potassium hydroxide as catalysts is carried out. The optimum process parameters like reaction time, temperature, catalyst loading and methanol-oil molar ratio were investigated with respect to maximum yield. A maximum yield of 88% biodiesel is obtained via this method. A novel technique to produce biodiesel via complete hydrolysis followed by acid esterification is developed. Optimum reaction conditions were found to be 100ml 0.5N sulphuric acid loading, reaction temperature of 40ºC and reaction time of 2 hours. This resulted in a maximum FFA of 82%. Then acid esterification was carried out at the following reaction conditions of 0.55:1 v/v methanol-oil-ratio, 0.5% v/v H2SO4 acid catalyst loading, 50˚C and 4 hours reaction time. A maximum biodiesel yield of 92% was obtained by this method. The viscosity of biodiesel produced by this method as well as the other physicochemical properties, were found to be in compliance with international standard.
Synthesis of bioethanol from tamarind seeds using marine strain of Saccharomy...Asheesh Padiyar
Bioethanol can be used as a second generation advanced biofuels. Currently it is mainly produced from starch but bioethanol production from starch leads to competition for food, land and price. Therefore, ligno-cellulosic agricultural residues are potentially used for bioethanol production to solve such challenges. In the present work acid pretreated tamarind kernel powder is used as a ligno-cellulosic biomass for bioethanol production using marine yeast. Greater osmosis tolerance, greater special chemical productivity and production of industrial enzymes are the unique characteristics of marine yeast over terrestrial strains. Hence, marine yeasts have great
potential to be applied in various industries. Therefore, the marine strain of saccharomyces cerevisiaewas isolated from marine water and was used for bioethanol production and the bioethanol yield was optimized using the full factorial design methodology. The amount of Bioethanol yield on day 2 was found to be 2.3g/l and the interaction effects were also studied using Minitab 17 software.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Effects of Extraction Methods and Transesterification Temperature on the Qual...IJRTEMJOURNAL
Jatropha curcas oil has been considered a promising alternative fuel for compressing ignition
engines. However, its qualities and utilizations have been affected by so many factors such as extraction
methods, temperatures, reactants, etc. As a result, this work was aimed at studying the effects of extraction
methods and transesterification temperature on the qualities of biodiesel from jatropha oil seeds. Three methods
of extraction (milling hydraulic, and defatting; milling, toasting, and defatting: and sand roasting, dehulling,
milling and defatting) were employed to produce the three different samples A, B, and C respectively. The yields
of the oils obtained were measured. Oil qualities of the oil like: specific gravity, viscosity, free fatty acid,
saponification value, peroxide value, pH and iodine value content of the oil were determined. The extracted oils
were subjected to transesterification process at a various temperature by treatment with ethanol using
potassium hydroxide as catalyst. Average yield of biodiesel was 70.62 %, 74.33% and 79.41% of raw oil from
sample A, B and C respectively. The specific gravity, viscosity, free fatty acid, saponification value, peroxide
value, pH and iodine value content of the oil of sample were A (0.904, 3.240mm2/s, 0.431% ,64.80mg/kg,
2.00mg/kg, 7.38 and 140.61, respectively); sample B (0.903, 3.130mm2/s, 0.423%, 58.91mg/kg, 11.00mg/kg,
7.02 and 55.33, respectively); sample C (0.908, 3.324mm2/s, 0.368%, 52.73mg/kg, 2.00mg/kg, 8.50 and 143.65
respectively). The result revealed that different extraction methods and transesterification temperature have
actually affected the quantity and quality of biodiesel produced from Jatropha oil seeds. Processing of the oil
seeds by roasting dehulling, milling and defatting and transesterification at 700C gave the highest oil yield and
the most acceptable chemical properties.
Characterization of biodiesel produced by meth butanolysis of castor oileSAT Journals
Abstract Crude Castor oil was transesterified using methanol, mixtures of methanol and butanol in molar percentages and potassium hydroxide as catalyst. The optimum reaction conditions, based on the percentage yield of biodiesel, were 45 mins reaction time at 650C and 1.5w/w% catalyst. The alcohol/oil ratio and agitation rate were both held constant at 12:1 and 450rpm respectively throughout the process. The yield of biodiesel from castor oil at such optimum reaction conditions were 87.1%, 85.7 % and 81.7 for 100%, 95% and 90% methanol-butanol molar blends respectively. . The specific gravities at 150C were 0.898 and 0.902ml/g, kinematic viscosities at 400C varied from 6.4 to 7.8 cSt. The calorific values were between 10690 and 10708 cal/g and the flash points were found to be within the range 144 to 1500C. The standard specifications for biodiesel (ASTM D67651) show that the specific gravity, flash point and calorific value requirements were satisfied. The higher viscosity (above 6.0 cSt.) can be controlled by the use of additives. Alternatively, blending with petroleum diesel will lead to improvement of the flow properties of the biodiesel fuel. Keywords: Transesterification, Castor oil, methanol/butanol molar blend, Biodiesel yield.
Optimization of Sunflower Methyl Ester and its Tribological StudiesIJRES Journal
The mineral oil lubricants that are being used these days are not sure of lasting for a long time. There are chances of them being depleted in a short span of years. As a replacement for the mineral oils, various vegetable oils are taken up for research purpose in order to use them as an alternate for the present mineral lubrication. Bio lubricant is produced by transesterification of a triglyceride with methanol in the presence of catalyst to produce fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) and glycerol. The main parameters affecting the transesterification reactions are molar ratio, catalyst type and amount, reaction time, temperature and stirrer speed. In this work, the producrion of sunflower methyl ester (SFME) can be optimized by using Taguchi technique and the properties of a lubricant like viscosity, flash point and fire point is found out, also four ball wear test proved that the SFME+crude SFO proportions produced less wear scar than conventional 2T oil which revealed that the prepared bio lubricant can be used in a commercial vehicle.
Recycling is an effective technology for minimization of process cost. Recycling of biocatalyst along with recycling of used oil is a new technique for the preparation of alternative fuel Preparation of alternative fuel through cost minimization is supposed to be the most challenging job in the present academicians and researchers. Biodiesel is one of the most important alternative fuels in the near future and it attracts considerable attention as environment friendly, renewable and non-toxic fuel. In the present research investigation, waste cooking oil (WCO) is utilized as cheap raw materials for this purpose and enzyme recycling technology has been adopted to prepare biodiesel. Recycling of enzyme is a novel technology which can reduce the process cost. In our study, nonspecific enzyme Novozyme 435 (Candida antarctica) is utilized and recycled ten times for the transesterification reaction of WCO and methanol maintaining definite reaction parameters like alcohol to oil molar ratio, reaction temperature, mixing intensity and biocatalyst concentration. The physical properties of WCO methyl ester and diesel fuel have been compared and it shows significant results. So recycling of enzyme for the production of alternative fuel from recycled oil can be utilized to mitigate scarcity of non-renewable fuel in the future world.
The world is confronted with twin crisis of fossil fuel depletion and environment degradation. The indiscriminate extraction and consumption of fossil fuels has led to reduction in petroleum reserves. Petroleum based fuels are obtained from limited resources. These finite reserves are highly concentrated in certain region of the word. Therefore, those countries that do not have are facing a foreign exchange crisis, mainly due to the import of crude petroleum oil. Hence it is necessary to look for alternative fuels. Which can be produced from materials available within the country. In the present scenario, agricultural and food waste is increasingly being considered a valuable resource. This way of using that waste reduces the cost of production of bio-ethanol and the problem related to the disposal of waste. Bio-ethanol can be produced using fruit waste by finding it reducing sugar value and by undergoing fermentation process and using some ca talyst respectively in each of the process. Each process must be maintained in pre-determined temperature for the to be the success. The fuel properties namely flash and fire point, kinematic viscosity etc, were studied. It was found that the properties were quite comparable to the properties of the petroleum fuel. By using agricultural waste to produce bio-ethanol, it reduces the cost of production and environmental impact related to the disposal of wastes.
This project aims at a comparative study on Performance, Emission and
Combustion characteristics of Biodiesel when blended with Barium Oxide
nanoparticles in single cylinder DI Diesel Engine. Because of modernizations and
increase in number of automobiles worldwide, the consumption of diesel has
massively increased. As petroleum is non-renewable major source of energy and its
reserves are scare now a days, there is a need for research in finding alternative fuels
for automobiles. And also Bio diesels are renewable, nontoxic and eco-friendly fuels
that can play an important role in automobile industries. And this paper deals with the
transesterification of biological seed oil by means of methanol in presence potassium
hydroxide catalyst. The viscosity of biodiesel produced from biological seed oil is
nearer to that of the commercially available diesel. The biological seed oil is analyzed
by Gas chromatography and the important properties of biodiesel such as density,
flash point, cloud point, carbon residue are found out and compared with that of
ASTM – biodiesel standards and commercially available diesel
Exploration of the Potential of Reclaimed Waste Cooking Oil for Oil-Immersed ...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
In this study, reclaimed waste cooking oil is proposed as an alternative insulating liquid for oil-immersed power transformers. Reclamation is carried out by heating a mixture of waste cooking oil and Fuller’s Earth adsorbent and followed by filtration. Propyl gallate antioxidant is then added into the filtered oil. Four oil samples are investigated in this study: (1) new cooking oil (NCO), (2) waste cooking oil (WCO), (3) reclaimed oil (RWCO) and (4) reclaimed oil with propyl gallate antioxidant (RWCOPG). The AC breakdown voltage, moisture content and total acid number is measured for all oil samples according to the ASTM D1816, ASTM D1533 and ASTM D974 standard test method, respectively. The results show that the AC breakdown voltage is highest for the RWCOPG sample (28.08 kV), which is 0.4% higher than the standard requirement of 20 kV. The moisture content for this sample is 180.60 ppm, which is still below the allowable limit of 200 ppm. However, the total acid number is highest for the RWCOPG sample which suggests that it has high acidity. It is indicated that the antioxidant-reclaimed waste cooking oil has potential to be used as an insulating liquid for oil-immersed power transformers, but much work is still needed to reduce the total acid number of this oil.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Production & Evaluation of Biodiesel from Karanja Seeds, A Seed Plentily Avai...BIBHUTI BHUSAN SAMANTARAY
Energy is playing an important role in the development of economy and society both in developed and developing countries. As concern to the environment & vehicular population lead toward fuel crisis there is a trend begin to look for the alternative energy source which are more secure & less pollute. This paper is about the renewable source of Energy i.e. Biodiesel which is more secure & less pollutant as compared to fossil fuel (Diesel). This paper represent the biodiesel production from the Karanja oil which is plentily available in rural Odisha. We have set up a low cost experimental set up in which we have used the transesterification process to produce the Biodiesel and we have found out that the overall quality of the Biodiesel is optimum and satisfactory. The conversion of Crude Karanja oil to biodiesel in our experiment is around 3570 ml out of 5000 ml, which shows a good agreement in the other literature regarding the Biodiesel Production. Also in this paper we have focused on the crude glycerol formation as a byproduct and its utilization. The experiment has been conducted in a controlled environment where the temperature was around 63-67℃ and it has lasted around 92-95 min per experiment with the help of the catalyst KOH and MeOH in the proportion of 6:10 and 8:10 respectively.
Production & Evaluation of Biodiesel from Karanja Seeds, A Seed Plentily Avai...IJMER
Energy is playing an important role in the development of economy and society both in developed and developing countries. As concern to the environment & vehicular population lead toward fuel crisis there is a trend begin to look for the alternative energy source which are more secure & less pollute. This paper is about the renewable source of Energy i.e. Biodiesel which is more secure & less pollutant as compared to fossil fuel (Diesel). This paper represent the biodiesel production from the Karanja oil which is plentily available in rural Odisha. We have set up a low cost experimental set up in which we have used the transesterification process to produce the Biodiesel and we have found out that the overall quality of the Biodiesel is optimum and satisfactory. The conversion of Crude Karanja oil to biodiesel in our experiment is around 3570 ml out of 5000 ml, which shows a good agreement in the other literature regarding the Biodiesel Production. Also in this paper we have focused on the crude glycerol formation as a byproduct and its utilization. The experiment has been conducted in a controlled environment where the temperature was around 63-67℃ and it has lasted around 92-95 min per experiment with the help of the catalyst KOH and MeOH in the proportion of 6:10 and 8:10 respectively.
Evaluation of Agro-morphological Performances of Hybrid Varieties of Chili Pe...Premier Publishers
In Benin, chilli pepper is a widely consumed as vegetable whose production requires the use of performant varieties. This work assessed, at Parakou and Malanville, the performance of six F1 hybrids of chilli including five imported (Laali, Laser, Nandi, Kranti, Nandita) and one local (De cayenne), in completely randomized block design at four replications and 15 plants per elementary plot. Agro-morphological data were collected and submitted to analysis of variance and factor analysis of mixed data. The results showed the effects of variety, location and their interactions were highly significant for most of the growth, earliness and yield traits. Imported hybrid varieties showed the best performances compared to the local one. Multivariate analysis revealed that 'De cayenne' was earlier, short in size, thin-stemmed, red fruits and less yielding (≈ 1 t.ha-1). The imported hybrids LaaliF1 and KrantiF1 were of strong vegetative vigor, more yielding (> 6 t.ha-1) by developing larger, long and hard fruits. Other hybrids showed intermediate performances. This study highlighted the importance of imported hybrids in improving yield and preservation of chili fruits. However, stability and adaptation analyses to local conditions are necessary for their adoption.
An Empirical Approach for the Variation in Capital Market Price Changes Premier Publishers
The chances of an investor in the stock market depends mainly on some certain decisions in respect to equilibrium prices, which is the condition of a system competing favorably and effectively. This paper considered a stochastic model which was latter transformed to non-linear ordinary differential equation where stock volatility was used as a key parameter. The analytical solution was obtained which determined the equilibrium prices. A theorem was developed and proved to show that the proposed mathematical model follows a normal distribution since it has a symmetric property. Finally, graphical results were presented and the effects of the relevant parameters were discussed.
Influence of Nitrogen and Spacing on Growth and Yield of Chia (Salvia hispani...Premier Publishers
Chia is an emerging cash crop in Kenya and its production is inhibited by lack of agronomic management information. A field experiment was conducted in February-June and May-August 2021, to determine the influence of nitrogen and spacing on growth and yield of Chia. A randomized complete block design with a split plot arrangement was used with four nitrogen rates as the main plots (0, 40, 80, 120 kg N ha-1) and three spacing (30 cm x 15 cm (s1), 30 cm x 30 cm (s2), 50 cm x 50 cm (s3)). Application of 120 kg N ha-1 significantly increased (p≤0.05) vegetative growth and seed yield of Chia. Stem height, branches, stem diameter and leaves increased by 23-28%, 11-13%, 43-55% and 59-88% respectively. Spacing s3 significantly increased (p≤0.05) vegetative growth. An increase of 27-74%, 36-45% and 73-107% was recorded in number of leaves, stem diameter and dry weight, respectively. Chia yield per plant was significantly higher (p≤0.05) in s3. However, when expressed per unit area, s1 significantly produced higher yields. The study recommends 120 kg N ha-1 or higher nitrogen rates and a closer spacing of 15 cm x 30 cm as the best option for Chia production in Kenya.
Enhancing Social Capital During the Pandemic: A Case of the Rural Women in Bu...Premier Publishers
Social capital plays an essential role in empowering people for social and economic change even during the pandemic. A livelihood project of the government was implemented among the members of a women’s association of a disadvantaged upland community in Bukidnon province, Southern Philippines for inclusive development. This study was conducted to determine the influence of some socio-economic attributes and the change in the knowledge level on the social capital of the rural women amidst the pandemic. The activities of the project were implemented considering the health protocols imposed by the government during the health crisis. The findings revealed that the trainings conducted resulted to a positive change in the knowledge level among the rural women. This facilitated the production of vegetables for their households and generated additional income very necessary during the pandemic especially that other economic activities were hindered. Similarly, there was a significant increase in the social capital of the rural women during the last two years. The main occupation, sources of income and their ethnicity significantly influenced the social capital of the rural women. The rural development workers and policymakers must consider the social capital of the group in the implementation of poverty alleviation programs.
Impact of Provision of Litigation Supports through Forensic Investigations on...Premier Publishers
This paper presents an argument through the fraud triangle theory that the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations in relation to corporate fraud cases is adequate for effective prosecution of perpetrators as well as corporate fraud prevention. To support this argument, this study operationalized provision of litigation supports through forensic audit and investigations, data mining for trends and patterns, and fraud data collection and preparation. A sample of 500 respondents was drawn from the population of professional accountants and legal practitioners in Nigeria. Questionnaire was used as the instrument for data collection and this was mailed to the respective respondents. Resulting responses were analyzed using the OLS multiple regression techniques via the SPSS statistical software. The results reveal that the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations, fraud data mining for trends and patterns and fraud data collection and preparation for court proceedings have a positive and significant impact on corporate fraud prevention in Nigeria. This study therefore recommends that regulators should promote the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations in relation to corporate fraud cases in publicly listed firms in Nigeria, as this will help provide reports that are acceptable in court proceedings.
Improving the Efficiency of Ratio Estimators by Calibration WeightingsPremier Publishers
It is observed that the performances of most improved ratio estimators depend on some optimality conditions that need to be satisfied to guarantee better estimator. This paper develops a new approach to ratio estimation that produces a more efficient class of ratio estimators that do not depend on any optimality conditions for optimum performance using calibration weightings. The relative performances of the proposed calibration ratio estimators are compared with a corresponding global [Generalized Regression (GREG)] estimator. Results of analysis showed that the proposed calibration ratio estimators are substantially superior to the traditional GREG-estimator with relatively small bias, mean square error, average length of confidence interval and coverage probability. In general, the proposed calibration ratio estimators are more efficient than all existing estimators considered in the study.
Urban Liveability in the Context of Sustainable Development: A Perspective fr...Premier Publishers
Urbanization and quality of urban life are mutually related and however it varies geographically and regionally. With unprecedented growth of urban centres, challenge against urban development is more in terms of how to enhance quality of urban life and liveability. Making sense of and measuring urban liveability of urban places has become a crucial step in the context of sustainable development paradigm. Geographical regions depict variations in nature of urban development and consequently level of urban liveability. The coastal regain of West Bengal faces unusual challenges caused by increasing urbanization, uncontrolled growth, and expansion of economic activities like tourism and changing environmental quality. The present study offers a perspective on urban liveability of urban places located in coastal region comprising of Purba Medinipur and South 24 Parganas districts. The study uses the liveability standards covering four major pillars- institutional, social, economic and physical and their indicators. This leads to develop a City Liveability Index to rank urban places of the region, higher the index values better the urban liveability. The data for the purpose is collected from various secondary sources. Study finds that the eastern coastal region of the country covering state of West Bengal depicts variations in index of liveability determined by physical, economic, social and institutional indicators.
Transcript Level of Genes Involved in “Rebaudioside A” Biosynthesis Pathway u...Premier Publishers
Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni is a plant which has recently been used widely as a sweetener. This medicinal plant has some components such as diterpenoid glycosides called steviol glycosides [SGs]. Rebaudioside A is a diterpenoid steviol glycoside which is 300 times sweeter than table sugar. This study was done to investigate the effect of GA3 (50 mg/L) on the expression of 14 genes involved in Rebaudioside A biosynthesis pathway in Stevia rebaudiana under in vitro conditions. The expression of DXS remarkably decreased by day 3. Also, probably because of the negative feedback of GA3 on MEP-drived isoprenes, GGDS transcript level reached its lowest amount after GA3 treatment. The abundance of DXR, CMS, CMK, MCS, and CDPS transcripts showed a significant increase at various days after this treatment. A significant drop in the expression levels of KS and UGT85C2 is detected during the first day. However, expression changes of HDR and KD were not remarkable. Results revealed that the level of transcript of UGT74G1 and UGT76G1 up regulated significantly 4 and 2 times higher than control, respectively. However, more research needs to shed more light on the mechanism of GA3 on gene expression of MEP pathway.
Multivariate Analysis of Tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze) Clones on Mor...Premier Publishers
Information on genetic variability for biochemical characters is a prerequisite for improvement of tea quality. Thirteen introduced tea clones characterized with objective; assessing tea clones based on morphological characters at Melko and Gera research stations. The study was conducted during 2017/18 cropping season on experimental plots in RCBD with three replications. Data recorded on morphological traits like days from pruning to harvest, height to first branch, stem diameter, leaf serration density, leaf length, leaf width, leaf size, petiole length, leaf ratio, internode length, shoot length, number of shoot, canopy diameter, hundred shoot weight, fresh leaf yield per tree. Cluster analysis of morphological trait grouped into four clusters indicated, the existence of divergence among the tested clones. The maximum inter-cluster distance was between clusters I and IV (35.27) while the minimum inter cluster distance was observed between clusters I and II (7.8).Principal components analysis showed that the first five principal components with eigenvalues greater than one accounted 86.45% for 15 morphological traits. Generally, the study indicated presence of variability for several morphological traits. However, high morphological variation between clones is not a guarantee for a high genetic variation; therefore, molecular studies need to be considered as complementary to biochemical studies.
Causes, Consequences and Remedies of Juvenile Delinquency in the Context of S...Premier Publishers
This research work was designed to examine nature of juvenile offences committed by juveniles, causes of juvenile delinquency, consequences of juvenile delinquency and remedies for juvenile delinquency in the context of Sub-Saharan Africa with specific reference to Eritrea. Left unchecked, juvenile delinquents on the streets engage in petty theft, take alcohol or drugs, rape women, rob people at night involve themselves in criminal gangs and threaten the public at night. To shed light on the problem of juvenile delinquency in the Sub-Saharan region data was collected through primary and secondary sources. A sample size of 70 juvenile delinquents was selected from among 112 juvenile delinquents in remand at the Asmara Juvenile Rehabilitation Center in the Eritrean capital. The study was carried out through coded self-administered questionnaires administered to a sample of 70 juvenile delinquents. The survey evidence indicates that the majority of the juvenile respondents come either from families constructed by unmarried couples or separated or divorced parents where largely the father is missing in the home or dead. The findings also indicate that children born out of wedlock, families led by single mothers, lack of fatherly role models, poor parental-child relationships and negative peer group influence as dominant causes of juvenile infractions. The implication is that broken and stressed families are highly likely to be the breeding grounds for juvenile delinquency. The survey evidence indicates that stealing, truancy or absenteeism from school, rowdy or unruly behavior at school, free-riding in public transportation, damaging the book of fellow students and beating other young persons are the most common forms of juvenile offenses. It is therefore, recommended that parents and guardians should exercise proper parental supervision and give adequate care to transmit positive societal values to children. In addition, the government, the police, prosecution and courts, non-government organizations, parents, teachers, religious leaders, education administrators and other stakeholders should develop a child justice system that strives to prevent children from entering deeper into the criminal justice process.
The Knowledge of and Attitude to and Beliefs about Causes and Treatments of M...Premier Publishers
Stigma and discrimination associated with mental illness are a common occurrence in the Sub-Saharan region including Eritrea. Numerous studies from Sub-Saharan Africa suggest that stigma and discrimination are major problems in the community, with negative attitudes and behavior towards people with mental illness being widespread. In order to assess the whether such negative attitudes persist in the context of Eritrea this study explored the knowledge and perceptions of 90 Eritrean university students at the College of Business and Economics, the University of Asmara regarding the causes and remedies of mental illness A qualitative method involving coded self-administered questionnaires administered to a sample of 90 university students to collecting data at the end of 2019. The survey evidence points that almost 50% of the respondents had contact with a mentally ill person suggesting that the significant number of the respondents experienced a first-hand encounter and knowledge of mental illness in their family and community. The findings show an overall greater science-based understanding of the causes of mental illness to be followed by recommended psychiatric treatments. The survey evidence indicates that the top three leading causes of mental illness in the context of Eritrea according to the respondents are brain disease (76%), bad events in the life of the mentally ill person (66%) and substance abuse or alcohol taking, smoking, taking drugs like hashish. (54%). The majority of the respondents have a very sympathetic and positive outlook towards mentally ill persons suggesting that mentally illness does not simply affect a chosen individual rather it can happen to anybody regardless of economic class, social status, ethnicity race and religion. Medical interventions cited by the majority of the respondents as being effective treatments for mental illness centered on the idea that hospitals and clinics for treatment and even cures for psychiatric disease. Changing perceptions of mental illnesses in Eritrea that paralleled the very caring and sympathetic attitudes of the sample university students would require raising public awareness regarding mental illness through education, using the mass media to raise public awareness, integrating mental health into the primary health care system, decentralizing mental health care services to increase access to treatment and providing affordable service to maintain positive treatment outcomes.
Effect of Phosphorus and Zinc on the Growth, Nodulation and Yield of Soybean ...Premier Publishers
An investigation was carried out at Kogi State University Student Research and Demonstration farm Anyigba during the 2019 wet season to observe the effect of phosphorus and zinc on the growth, nodulation and yield of soybean. The treatments comprised three levels: phosphorus and zinc (0, 30 and 60 kg P2O5/ha; 0, 5 and 10kg Zn/ha) and two varieties TGX 536 – 02D and Samsoy 2. The investigation revealed that application of phosphorus affected growth, nodulation, yield and some yield components of soybean while zinc application, apart from the plant height, which is reduced significantly, had no significant effect on other growth characters, nodulation, yield and yield components. However, it was generally found to decrease most of the characters. Application of 60 kg P2O5/ha gave the highest growth and yield, while 30 kg P2O5/ha gave the highest nodulation. Application of 60 kg P2O5/ha significantly increased yield to 1.9t/ha, which was significantly higher over the control plots, which gave 1.7t/ha. Crude protein and oil contents of the seeds were not significantly affected by phosphorus application but were significantly affected by zinc application, which significantly decreased protein content as its amount an increase from 0 to 10 kg/ha, and significantly increased oil content from 0 to 5kg/ha and decreased it below 5kg/ha. It was also revealed that the two varieties responded similarly to phosphorus and zinc in terms of growth, grain yield and crude protein content of the seeds.
Influence of Harvest Stage on Yield and Yield Components of Orange Fleshed Sw...Premier Publishers
A field experiment was conducted at Adami Tullu Agricultural Research Center in 2018 under rainfed condition with supplementary irrigation to determine the influence of harvest stage on vine yield and tuberous root yield of orange fleshed sweet potato varieties. The experiment consisted of four harvest stages (105, 120, 135 and 150 days after planting) and Kulfo, Tulla and Guntute varieties. A 4 X 3 factorial experiment arranged in randomized complete block design with three replications was used. Interaction of harvest stage and variety significantly influenced above ground fresh biomass, vine length, marketable tuberous root weight per hectare, commercial harvest index and harvest index. The highest mean values of above ground fresh biomass (66.12 t/ha) and marketable tuberous root weight (56.39 t/ha) were produced by Guntute variety harvested at 135 days after planting. Based on the results, it can be recommended that, farmers of the study area can grow Guntute variety by harvesting at 135 days after planting to obtain optimum vine and tuberous root yields.
Performance evaluation of upland rice (Oryza sativa L.) and variability study...Premier Publishers
This study aimed at assessing genetic variability and to evaluate the performance of 13 improved upland rice varieties for yield and its components based on morphological traits. The field experiment was conducted using a randomized block design at Guraferda and Gimbo districts in the 2019 main cropping season. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) over the two locations revealed significant differences (p≤ 0.05) among varieties for days to 50% heading, days to 85% maturity, panicle length, thousand-grain weight, and grain yield. Similarly, the ANOVA for variety by location interactions depicted significant differences among the tested varieties for days to 50% heading, days to 85% maturity, and thousand-grain weight. High heritability was obtained from days to heading (88.5%), panicle length (85.0%), and grain yield (85.2%), which indicates these traits can be easily improved through selection. High to medium broad sense heritability and genetic advance as percentage of the mean for days to heading, thousand-grain weight, and grain yield indicates a good opportunity for improvement through selection using their phenotypic performance. This is mainly due to the high role of additive gene action in the expression of such traits. This study confirmed the presence of variability among varieties for most of the studied traits, which will create an opportunity for breeders to improve rice yield and other attributes.
Response of Hot Pepper (Capsicum Annuum L.) to Deficit Irrigation in Bennatse...Premier Publishers
This study was conducted at Enchete kebele in Benna-Tsemay Woreda, South Omo Zone to evaluate the response of hot pepper to deficit irrigation on yield and water productivity under furrow irrigation system. The experiment comprised four treatments (100 % of ETc, 85% of ETc, 70 % of ETc and 50% of ETc), respectively. The experiment was laid out in RCBD and replicated four times. The two years combined yield results indicated that, the maximum total yield (20.38 t/ha) was obtained from 100% ETc while minimum yield (12.92 t/ha) was obtained from 50% of ETc deficit irrigation level. The highest WUE 5.22 kg/ha mm-1 was obtained from 50% of ETc. Treatment of 100% ETc irrigation application had highest benefit cost ratio (4.5) than all others treatments. Applying 50% of ETc reduce the yield by 37% when compared to 100 % ETc. Accordingly, to achieve maximum hot pepper yield in areas where water is not scarce, applying 100% ETc irrigation water application level throughout whole growing season under furrow irrigation system is recommended. But, in the study area water scarcity is the major limiting factor for crop production. So, it is possible to get better yield and water productivity of hot pepper when we apply 85% ETc irrigation water throughout growing season under furrow irrigation system.
Harnessing the Power of Agricultural Waste: A Study of Sabo Market, Ikorodu, ...Premier Publishers
Nigeria is still burdened with huge responsibilities of waste disposal because the potential for benefits of proper waste management is yet to be harnessed. The paper evaluates the capacity of the Sabo Cattle market in producing the required quantities of waste from animal dung alongside decomposed fruits with a view to generating renewable energy possibilities for lighting, security and other business activities of the market. It is estimated that about 998 million tons of agricultural waste is produced yearly in the country with organic wastes amounting to 80 percent of the total solid wastes. This can be categorized into biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes. The paper evaluates the capacity of the Sabo Cattle market in producing the required quantities of waste from animal dung alongside decomposed fruits with a view to generating renewable energy possibilities for lighting, security and other business activities of the market. The Sabo market was treated as a study case with the adoption of in-depth examinations of the facility, animals and products for sale and waste generated. A combination of experimental, interviews (qualitative) and design simulation (for final phase) was adopted to extract, verify and analyse the data generated from the study. Animal waste samples were subjected to compositional and fibre analysis with results showing that the sample has high potency for biogas production. Biodegradable Wastes are human and animal excreta, agricultural and all degradable wastes. Availability of high quantity of waste generated being organic in Sabo market allows the use of anaerobic digestion to be proposed as a waste to energy technology due to its feasibility for conversion of moist biodegradable wastes into biogas. The study found that at peak supply period during the Islamic festivities, a conservative 300tonnes of animal waste is generated during the week which translates to over 800kilowatts of electricity.
Influence of Conferences and Job Rotation on Job Productivity of Library Staf...Premier Publishers
The general purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of conferences and job rotation on job productivity of library staff in tertiary institutions in Imo State, Nigeria. The survey research design was used for this study using questionnaire as an instrument for data collection. This study covered the entire population of 661. Out of these, 501 copies of the questionnaire representing 75.8% were duly completed and returned for analysis. Student’s t-test was used to analyze the research questions. The finding showed that conferences had no significant influence on the job productivity of library staff in tertiary institutions in Imo State, Nigeria (F cal= 7.86; t-vale =6.177; p >0.005). Finding also showed that job rotation significantly influences job productivity of library staff in tertiary institutions in Imo State, Nigeria (F-cal value= 18.65; t-value = 16.225; P<0.05). This study recommended that, government should ensure that library staff participate in conferences with themes and topics that are relevant to the job they perform and also ensure that there should be proper evaluation and feedback mechanism which aimed to ensuring control and minimize abuse of their development opportunities. Again, there should be written statement of objectives in order to sustain job rotation programmes. Also, that training and development needs of library staff must be identified and analyzed before embarking on job rotation processes as this would help to build skills, competences, specialization and high job productivity.
Scanning Electron Microscopic Structure and Composition of Urinary Calculi of...Premier Publishers
Microscopic examination of urine samples collected from geriatric dogs revealed increased numbers of erythrocytes, leucocytes, epithelial cells and pus cells along with casts, bacteria, spermatozoa and crystals of various shapes. Among the different crystals, triple phosphate or struvite were predominant, followed by calcium oxalate dihydrate, calcium oxalate monohydrate and ammonium urate or biurate. The struvite crystals were, coffin-lid shape and while calcium oxalate dihydrate were octahedron or envelope and monohydrate crystals demonstrated “picket fence” and “dumbbell” and “hemp seed” appearance. Brown or yellow-brown spherical bodies with irregular borders with thorn-apple appearance were shown by ammonium urate or biurate crystals. SEM aspects of magnesium ammonium phosphate crystals revealed perpendicular columnar strata, few with scattered hexa or octa-hedral coffin-lid shaped crystals and calcium phosphate crystals were like cracked eggshells. Presence of wavy phases with sundry areas (uric acid), picket fence (calcium oxalate monohydrate) and typical envelope (calcium oxalate dehydrate) were electron microscopic appearance of various crystals.
Gentrification and its Effects on Minority Communities – A Comparative Case S...Premier Publishers
This paper does a comparative analysis of four global cities and their minority districts which have been experiencing the same structural pressure of gentrification. The main contribution of this paper is providing a detailed comparison of four micro geographies worldwide and the impacts of gentrification on them: Barrio Logan in San Diego, Bo-Kaap in Cape Town, the Mission District in San Francisco, and the Rudolfsheim-Fünfhaus District in Vienna. All four cities have been experiencing the displacement of minority communities due to increases in property values. These cities were chosen because their governments enacted different policies to temper the gentrification process. It was found that cities which implemented social housing and cultural inclusionary policies were more successful in maintaining the cultural and demographic make-up of the districts.
Oil and Fatty Acid Composition Analysis of Ethiopian Mustard (Brasicacarinata...Premier Publishers
The experiments was conducted at Holetta Agricultural Research Center, to analyze forty nine Ethiopian Mustard land races for oil and fatty acid composition traits The experiment was carried out in a simple lattice design. The analysis of variance showed that there were highly significant differences among genotypes for all oil and fatty acid traits compared. The significant difference indicates the existence of genetic variability among the land races which is important for improvement
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
2. Heterogeneous Transesterification of Luffa aegyptiaca Oil to Biodiesel
Oche et al. 081
Fats and oil are carboxylic esters (trimesters) derived from
glycerol and are known as glycosides or triglycerides. In
chemical technology, transesterification process is now
used to convert seed oils as raw materials to biofuels via
catalytic means. In homogenously catalyzed
transesterification process, whether an acid or base
catalyzed, suffers some drawbacks in terms of process
integrity (Dae-Won et al., 2009): The corrosion of the
reactor and pipelines by dissolved acid/base species,
impossibility of catalyst recovery from the reactant-product
mixture resulting to environmental pollution when
disposed, lastly is the limitation in establishing a
continuous process.
Thus, heterogeneously catalyzed process, especially
those involving solid base catalysts, has been suggested
and studied continuously by academia and industry
(Ogunkunle et al., 2017).
This work is aimed at investigating the heterogeneous
transesterification of Luffa aegyptiaca oil to biodiesel using
kaolin clay/Al2O3/ MgO solid base catalyst and possibly
explain an expected high yield of biofuel from the catalytic
transesterification process adopted in this research work.
The specific objectives of the research are to:
(i) Evaluate the particle size and the crystalline nature of
solid catalyst mixture.
(ii) Extract Luffa aegyptiaca oil from the seeds of Luffa
aegyptiaca plant.
(iii) Produce biodiesel from Luffa aegyptiaca oil using
kaolin clay/Al2O3/MgO as solid catalyst.
(iv) Study the physicochemical characteristics, functional
groups and fatty acid composition of Luffa aegyptiaca
oil and biodiesel.
(v) Explain the efficiency of the heterogeneous
transesterification process based on the effect of
molar ratio of methanol to oil, water content, reaction
time, temperature and mass of catalyst to oil ratio.
At present, instead of the use of catalyst in petroleum and
some metallic resources, more interest has been focused
in the use of catalyst from natural raw materials to catalyze
seed oil for production and use as biodiesel that are more
environmentally friendly, acceptable and biodegradable. If
possible, explain the effect of molar ratio of methanol to oil,
water content, reaction time and mass ratio of catalyst to
oil stating what can be done to ascertain the acceptability
of the empirical relationship.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Apparatus/instruments
The apparatus used are within Abti American University
(AAU), Yola, Nigeria; Round bottom flask, condenser,
hotplate, thermometer (373 k), conical flask (250 ml, 500
ml, and 1000 ml), beaker (100 ml, 250 ml, 500 ml and 1000
ml), separating funnels (250 ml and 500 ml), test tubes,
desiccator, burette, pipette, retort stand, electronic
weighting balance, filter paper, soxhlet, distiller, sampling
bottles and tubes, spatula, magnetic stirrer, corks, funnels,
stop watch, hand gloves, nose mask, mortar and piston
(ceramic and metal), sieve (100 µm), foil paper, indicator
(phenolphthalein), petri dish, crucibles, clamps, oil bath,
water bath, steam bath, pH meter, muffle furnace, oven
(523 k, 1273 k), refrigerator, Gas Chromatography and
Mass Spectrophotometer, Fourier Transform Infrared, X-
ray diffractometer, viscometer, centrifuge (8,000 rpm).
Reagents
Methanol, hexane, sulphuric acid (H2SO4), sodium
hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH), kaolin
clay (Al2S2O4(OH)4), hydrated Al2O3, hydrated MgO and
sodium trioxocarbonate (Na2CO3), distilled water and urea
were obtained from the department of chemistry, School of
Pure and Applied Science, Modibbo Adama University of
Technology, Yola, Nigeria, while Luffa aegyptiaca oil was
extracted using sohxlet distiller from Luffa aegyptiaca seed
gathered from surrounding of the institution and diesel oil
from Nigerian National Petroleum Cooperation depot, Yola
Depot.
METHODS
Experimental procedure
This investigation was carried out in Abti American
University (AAU), Petroleum Technology laboratory, using
non-edible vegetable oil from Luffa aegyptiaca plant for
production of biodiesel as illustrated by Hirata et al.,
(2007). The uniqueness of this investigation is the
heterogeneous system created to investigate the
production of biodiesel. It involves the use of
heterogeneous base catalyst Clay/Al2O3/MgO.
Determination of fatty acid composition in the oil
Calculation of molecular weight of Luffa aegyptiaca.
𝑀 =
56.1 × 1000 × 3
𝑆𝑉−𝐴𝑉
Equation (1)
Where AV is the acid value (mg KOH/g oil) and SV is the
saponification value (mg KOH/g oil) as shown by Hawash
et al., (2011).
Experimental setup
The experimental set-up consisted mainly of round glass
reactor placed in an adjusted temperature water bath. The
flask was provided with reflux condenser, magnetic stirrer,
thermometer for temperature follow up and funnel for
methanol addition, the reaction was carried out at a
temperature of 333 k.
3. Heterogeneous Transesterification of Luffa aegyptiaca Oil to Biodiesel
Int. Res. J. Biochem. Biotechnol. 082
Catalyst preparation
Hydrotalcite particles with Mg/Al molar ratio of 3/1 was
synthesized by coprecipitation method using Kaolin clay/
NaOH as precipitating agents. In this method a solution
containing 0.28 mol of Mg (NO3)2.6H2O and 0.09 mol of Al
(NO3)3.9H2O mixed with 0.84 mol of NaOH and 0.25 mol
of Kaolin clay was prepared at room temperature under
vigorous stirring for 12 hours at 353 k, after which the
resulting sample was filtered and washed with deionized
water until pH was obtained. The hydrotalcite was dried at
333 k for 12 hours, after which the dried solid
(Clay/Al2O3/MgO) particles was milled and sieved (100
mesh), then calcined at 773 – 823 k for 6 – 9 hours in a
muffled flask. After cooling in a desiccator at room
temperature the base Clay/Al2O3/MgO catalyst was used
for transesterification (Xie et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2007;
Deng et al., 2011).
Transesterification reaction
The production of biodiesel was carried out according to
the internationally acceptable standard (Hirata et al.,
2007). Refluxing of methanol in the heterogeneous
reaction system was employed according to (Hawash et
al., 2011) to transesterify the vegetable oil to biodiesel.
In the reaction, the catalyst was weighted out using
electronic weighing balance, poured into the methanol and
dispersed with mechanical stirring (about 600rpm). Then
the above pretreated oil was added into the mixture and
heated to 333 k by water bath for 6-9 hours. After reaction,
excessive methanol was distilled off under a vacuum
condition (evaporation) and the two phases (glycerol and
biodiesel) were separated out using a separating funnel
and the catalyst was recovered by filtration using filter
paper.
Catalyst dosage variation
The amount (%wt) of the catalyst from the range of 1% -
9% for the base Clay/Al2O3/MgO catalyst was varied and
the corresponding yield of methyl ester at a temperature of
333 k for 9 hours with methanol to oil ratio of 3:1 and 600
rpm was observed.
Variation of molar ratio of methanol to oil
The next investigation was the variation of molar ratio of
methanol to oil, the rate of ratio chosen was from 3:1 –
12:1, using the base Clay/Al2O3/MgO catalyst
consecutively under these reaction conditions; 333 k,
atmospheric pressure, 9 hours under a catalyst dosage of
1-9% w/v and 600 rpm.
Variation of reaction time on methyl ester yield
Another very important investigation under this work is the
variation of reaction time to observe the % yield of the
biodiesel using the base Clay/Al2O3/MgO catalyst. The
observation was carried out from 0hrs – 9hours using a
methanol to oil ratio of 3:1 and temperature of 333 k with
catalyst concentration of 1-9 % w/v and 600rpm.
Physicochemical properties of biodiesel
The biodiesel properties such as viscosity, flash point and
specific gravity were carried out using ASTM standard
methods. Unlike the use of vegetable oils in the food
industries. The petroleum industry has its own testing
protocol for product evaluation (Liston, 1993). The
following test was carried out to evaluate the performance
and effectiveness of the seed oils as biodiesel prior to
modification.
Viscosity measurement
Viscosity is the property of a fluid that causes it to resist
flow which mechanically is the ratio of shear stress to
shear rate. Viscosity may be visualized as a result of
physical interaction of molecules when subjected to flow.
This was determined by the Cannon-Fenske viscometer
and a circulatory bath with temperature control. Viscosity
was calculated using ASTM method D445-97 (ASTM,
1997).
The viscometer was washed and dried. The sample was
sucked into it and then immersed into the circulatory bath
set at 303 k. The time of flow of sample from upper mark
to lower mark of the viscometer was recorded using a stop
watch. The experiment was repeated thrice and average
flow time recorded. This was carried out on oil before and
after transesterification.
The instrumental constant was obtained from the
viscometer thus viscosity of the sample was calculated
using the formula below:
Viscosity (V) = K T, Equation (2)
Where K = Instrumental constant
D =Density of the sample
T = Efflux time (sec)
Specific gravity determination
For many liquids, specific gravity is used as the ratio of the
mass of a given volume to the mass of an equal volume of
water. Therefore, specific gravity is dimensionless.
Specific gravity decreases with increasing temperature
and decreases as viscosity decreases. Specific gravity
was determined according to the standard method
contained in ASTM D5002 (ASTM, 1998). The sample oil
was poured into a vertical glass cylinder and a hydrometer
was placed in the oil and allowed to be stable. The value
of the specific gravity was taken from the marking on the
stem of the hydrometer at the surface of the oil.
4. Heterogeneous Transesterification of Luffa aegyptiaca Oil to Biodiesel
Oche et al. 083
Flash point determination
Flash point is an indication of the combustibility of the
vapour of oil, and it is defined as the lowest temperature at
which the vapour of the oil can be ignited under specific
conditions. Flash point is clearly related to safety.
Determination of flash point for the oil samples was done
using the ASTM D-92 method. An open cup containing the
oil sample was heated at a specific rate while periodically
passing a flame over its surface. The lowest temperature
at which the oil vapour ignites but could not sustain a flame
was recorded as the flash point.
Other physicochemical properties were carried out as
follows: saponification number and free fatty acid.
Saponification number
This parameter was determined by the standard method of
AOAC (2000). This is the number of milligram of KOH
required to react completely to saponify 2 g of oil. 1g of oil
sample was accurately weighted into a clean round bottom
flask, after which 25 ml of 0.5 M alcoholic KOH was added
to it. The flask was then fitted on a condenser and the
solution refluxed for 30min. The solution was titrated while
still hot against 1M H2SO4 and the test value recorded.
Similar procedure was followed and the blank obtained
respectively. The difference between the blank and the
test titer values gives the amount of KOH absorbed by the
oil.
Saponification value =
28.05 (V1 − V2)
Weight of oil sample
Equation (3)
Where V1= blank titer, and V2 = test titer.
Determination of free fatty acid
The acid value is the number of milligram of KOH required
to neutralize the acid (free organic acid) in 1 g of sample.
It is a measure of the free fatty acids present in the sample
in a conical flask. The mixture was heated on a hot plate
until it boiled, after which it was then removed and titrated
against 0.1 M KOH to the end point with two drops of
phenolthalein until a permanent pink colour persisted.
Free Fatty Acid (FFA) =
28.2 × normality × titre value
Sample weight
Equation (4)
X-ray diffraction analysis
The method outlined by Ponarulselvam et al. (2001) will be
adopted. The particle size and nature of catalyst will be
determined using XRD. This will be carried out using
shimadzu XRD-6000/6100 model with 30 kv, 30 mA with
Cu Kα radians at 2θ angle. X-ray powder diffraction is a
rapid analytical technique primarily used for phase
identification of crystalline material and can provide
information on unit cell dimensions. The material to be
analyzed will be ground, and an average bulk composition
will also be determined.
Fourier transform infrared spectrometer
The FTIR analysis will be done over the spectral range of
4000-400 cm-1. The properties of the oil will be
characterized by Shimatzu 8400S Fourier Transform
Infrared Spectrometer (Barbara, 2004).
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
The GC-MS analysis will be performed on the Hewlett
Packard 5972 mass spectrometer operated at ionization
energy of 70eV linked to an HP-5890 gas chromatography,
with a splitless injector (at 523 k), fitted with a flexible silica
capillary column of 30 m × 0.32 mm internal
diameter, 1.0 µm film thickness. About 1µL of each sample
will be injected by an auto sampler, the oven temperature
will be programmed from 40 to 3773 k at a rate of 313 k/min
and held at 3273 k for 20 min, using helium, career gas at
a flow rate of 1 ml/min, the samples were run using full
scan, single ion monitoring (SIM) and recorded using HP
chemstation system (Odebunmi and Ismaeel, 2012).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Characterization of Pure Luffa aegyptiaca Oil and
Biodiesel
The results of the properties as indicated in Table 1, for
PLO and BD1 showed that during the transesterification
process, the ash content which is a reflection of the
inorganic composition was determined (0.02) and falls
within the range required as indicated in the standard
(0.05). Transesterification also changed the pH value from
6.47 to 7.47 which were significant as compared to the
standard value of ≥ (less than) 7.15. After the
transesterification of the PLO to BD1 the pour point and
freezing point reduced and increased with time as shown
respectively; 12 min (PLO) – 5 min(BD1) and 5 min(PLO)
– 30 min(BD1). The determined values of density, specific
gravity, flash point, moisture content and viscosity gave
reductions from 0.969 g/mL to 0.889 g/mL, 0.865 g/mL to
0.851 g/mL, 349 k to 345 k, 0.0045 % to 0.0034 %, 34.95
Nsm-2 to 5.82 Nsm-2 respectively. This shows the effective
catalyst prepared from the use of kaolin clay incorporated
with MgO and Al2O3 as catalyst. The density and specific
gravity are indications of efficient flow on application of the
biodiesel in combustion engines, given the proof that the
biodiesel will combust in an engine with minimum
environmental effect (Hawash et al., 2011).
Characterization of Kaolin Hydrotalcite
Heterogeneous Base Catalyst
XRD patterns of hydrotalcite particles with Mg/Al molar
ratio of 3:1 as given in Figure 1 shows that particles
5. Heterogeneous Transesterification of Luffa aegyptiaca Oil to Biodiesel
Int. Res. J. Biochem. Biotechnol. 084
exhibited a single phase, corresponding to a typical
hydrotalcite structure with strong, sharp, and symmetric
peak for the (12),(24),(26),(25),(38),(50), and (62) planes
as well as broad and symmetric peaks for
the(45),(54),(56),(58),(59),(63),(71) and (73) planes. The
average particle size was calculated as 5.1 nm by Scherer
equation:
Dc = k ((α/β). Cos θ) Scherer equation. Equation (5)
Where
Dc = is the average particle size = 5.1 nm
K = is the Scherer constant = 0.89
α = is the X – ray wavelength, (CuKα) = 0.1541 nm
β = is the full width at half maximum (FWHM) = 0.026261
nm
θ = is the diffraction angle = 13.31200
After calcination at 773 k for 6 hours, hydrotalcite complex
was decomposed into mixed Mg – Al oxides, which were
confirmed by XRD pattern as shown in Figure 2. For the
calcined particles, the characteristic reflections were
observed clearly at 2θ of 26.6240, 50.7780 and 68.3020,
corresponding to SiO2 and MgO-like phase or magnesia-
alumina solid phase. The peaks of SiO2 and Al2O3 phase
were very small, indicating that Al3+ cations were dispersed
in the structure of MgO without the formation of spinel
species (Hargreaves, 2016).
Transesterification of Luffa aegyptiaca Oil using
Kaolin Hydrotalcite
Heterogeneous Base Catalyst
Transesterification of triglyceride as shown in Figure 3, is
used to reduce the viscosity and produces fatty acid alkyl
esters and glycerol. The process or reaction gives a three
layer mixture after a high speed centrifugation at 8,000 rpm
for 15 min, with the catalyst at the bottom, then the glycerol
layer at the middle and biodiesel at the top in the reaction
vessel. Excess methanol (100%) was used to force the
reaction in the forward direction producing corresponding
methyl esters and glycerol, thus, referring to the process
as methanolysis (Deng et al., 2011; Schuchardt et al.,
1998).
ROH + B RO- + BH+
The chemistry of transesterification which is an equilibrium
reaction that occur by mixing the reactants in the presence
of a catalyst specifically the base catalyzed process
(Schuchardt et al., 1998) is:
Equation (6): the reaction of the base with alcohol,
producing an alkoxide and the protonated catalyst,
Equation (7): nucleophilic attack of the alkoxide at the
carbonyl group of the triglyceride generates a tetrahedral
intermediate,
Equation (8): the formation of alkyl ester and the
corresponding anion of the diglyceride,
Equation (9): The latter deprotonate the catalyst, thus
regenerating the active species, which is now able to react
with the second molecule of the alcohol, starting another
catalytic cycle. Diglycerides and monoglycerides are
converted by the same mechanism to a mixture of alkyl
esters and glycerol (Schuchardt et al., 1998).
Effect of Preparation Condition on Luffa aegyptiaca
Oil Conversion to Biodiesel
Effect of catalyst dosage
The calcined nanoparticles as catalyst showed high
activity because they possessed strong basic sites and
large surface area. The effect of catalyst dosage on the
conversion of Luffa aegyptiaca oil to biodiesel was
investigated. The catalyst was measured at different
percentage (w/v %) and mixed properly before refluxing at
333 k for 3 hours under 3:1 molar ratio of methanol/oil.
That catalyst dosage of 6% (w/v %) showed the highest
conversion of 79.61% (for untreated oil). The reason for
the increase in biodiesel yield from 35.26% min - 79.61%
max was due to the increase of catalyst from 1% - 6% (w/v
%), which increased contact between reactants and wider
surface area with more catalyst active centers as
represented in Figure 4. But 81.27% biodiesel yield was
obtained when the oil was treated. As the dosage of
catalyst increased, more products where absorbed and the
yield of biodiesel decreased, which is in view with previous
research and findings (Hawash et al., 2011).
6. Heterogeneous Transesterification of Luffa aegyptiaca Oil to Biodiesel
Oche et al. 085
At 9% (w/v) of kaolin hydrotalcites the biodiesel yield
decreased, which was possible due to a mixing problem
involving reactants, products and solid catalyst.
Furthermore, when excessive catalyst was used, the
transesterification process was easily emulsified and
resulted in difficulties during separation of products (Deng
et al., 2011).
Effect of molar ratio of methanol to oil
Theoretically raising the molar ratio of methanol to Luffa
aegyptiaca oil favors the reaction (Hawash et al., 2011) i.e.
stoichiometrically, 3 mole of methanol were required for
each mole of Luffa aegyptiaca oil. However, practically
methanol/oil molar ratio should be higher than that of
stoichiometry in order to drive the reaction towards
completion and production of more methyl esters.
Moreover, Figure 5 showed that methanol can increase
the dissolution of Luffa aegyptiaca oil, intermediates and
biodiesel resulting in the wastage of the materials. When
the ratio increased from ratio 6/1 to 9/1, the yield of methyl
ester increases gradually from 63.41% to 69.44%. But it
was observed that at molar ratio above 9/1, excessive
methanol had no significant effect on the yield (Deng et al.,
2011).
Effect of reaction time
Because it was a heterogeneous reaction, the mass
transfer tends to be slow at 1 hour with biodiesel yield of
42.17%, but at 3 hours the biodiesel yield increased
drastically to 62.07% which further increased to 73.68% at
6 hours reaction time. Finally, an increase in biodiesel yield
was observed at 9 hours reaction time with 73.97%
biodiesel production. These phenomena showed in Figure
6 agreed with previous research findings which stated that
longer time was required for the subsequent separation
stage because the separation of the esters layer from
glycerol was difficult due to the fact that methanol with one
polar hydroxyl group could emulsify product (Deng et al.,
2011).
Effect of reaction temperature
Reaction temperature was also an important factor that
influences the biodiesel yield in this research. Each
experiment was run for 3 hours with 3% (w/v) catalyst and
3/1 molar ratio of methanol/oil content. The result indicated
in figure 7 showed that biodiesel yield was low at a low
temperature with only 34.79% yield at 313 K for 6 hours
which increased at constant time of 6 hours to 58.35%
yield at 318 k and then to 60.26% yield at 323 k, 67.15%
was obtained at 328 k with a highest of 73.68% yield
obtained at a temperature of 333 k, slight decrease of
59.10% yield at 338 k was then observed (Deng et al.,
2011).
Comparation of kaolin clay/MgO/Al2O3 with different
catalyst models such as;
Na2CO3/Al2O3/MgO, Urea/Al2O3/MgO and KOH on
treated oil.
The activity of the catalyst prepared was compared with
different catalyst models keeping the temperature, catalyst
dosage, time and methanol/oil ratio constant. Figure 8
showed values obtained were 81.26 %, 93.64 %, 91.72 %
and 87.51 % for Kaolin, Na2CO3, Urea and KOH
respectively (Hawash et al., 2011).
Effect of temperature on the viscosity of PLO, BD1 and
CD
The effect of temperature on the viscous flow of PLO,
BD1and CD as represented in Figure 9, was determined
in order to obtain a suitable temperature of the biodiesel
(BD1) compared to the commercial diesel (CD) was
represented in Figure 10.
Fourier Transform Infra-Red Analysis
A more suitable blend ratio of biodiesel/commercial diesel
was obtained at 303 k and 313 k with viscosity of 5.25
Nsm-2 and 4.23 Nsm-2 respectively and blend ratio of
20:80. Table 2 showed that the PLO peaks were seen to
have bands at 585, 722, 1163, 1375, 1461, 1655, 1745,
2679, 2853, 2923, 3005 and 3473 cm-1. While those of the
BD1 were seen at 512, 722, 1170, 1362, 1462, 1655,
1743, 2363, 2854, 2925, 3005 and 3461 cm-1 along with
their expected functional groups. These spectral bands are
displayed in Figures 11, 12 and 13 respectively which are
discussed according to the regions obtained in the FTIR
spectra. This data suggests that, the biodiesel samples
indicated proof of successful transesterification.
The region (3700–3200) cm-1
This region is characterized by hydroxyl (O-H) group of
alcohol and phenol, amine (N-H) and methyl (C-H)
stretching bonds. The appearance of the frequency band
3473 cm-1 PLO sample spectra is an indication of the O-H
stretching vibrations. However, the decreased stretching
frequency at 3473–3461 cm-1 in the hydroxyl of the
biodiesel samples spectra showed proof of biodiesel
synthesis. Thus, justified with increase in the absorption
1655 cm-1 is an indication of the C=C stretching band of
alkenes (Pavia et al., 2001).
The region (3200–2800) cm-1
This region is characterized by the presence of O-H
carboxylic acid, vinyl C-H, aryl C-H, sp3 alkyl (C-H) and C-
H aldehyde. The frequency band 2923 cm-1 in PLO sample
spectra depict the C-H stretch associated with oil. The
spectra of biodiesel sample also showed the presence of
C=C stretching bands of the biodiesel samples with 2925
cm-1 (Pavia et al., 2001).
7. Heterogeneous Transesterification of Luffa aegyptiaca Oil to Biodiesel
Int. Res. J. Biochem. Biotechnol. 086
The region (2800–2200) cm-1
This region comprises of alkynes C≡C, nitriles C≡N and
carboxylic acid O-H absorption band. The PLO sample
spectra in Figure 11 revealed the absorption band at 2679
cm-1, while the biodiesel samples showed its reduction to
2363 cm-1 (Pavia et al., 2001) .
The region (1850 – 1100) cm-1
This region is mainly dominated by the carbonyl group
(C=O) of esters, ketones, aldehyde, carboxylic acids and
amides. The study of hemicelluloses and lignin reveal that
absorption lines situated between 1510 and 1600 cm-1 is
caused by lignin while the absorption band at 1730 cm-1 is
caused by hemicelluloses, thus, the C=O stretch in
conjugated ketones, esters and carbonyls groups are
proved.
Interestingly, the biodiesel samples spectra have shown
evidence of transesterification with increased absorption,
high yield and enhancement of 1645 cm-1, 1730–1650 cm-
1 C=O stretching, 1350–1400 cm-1 which is C–H bond in –
O(C=O)–CH3 group. All esters give rise to three strong
infrared bands that appear at approximately 1700 cm-1,
1300 cm-1 and 1200 cm-1, known as the rule of three
(Bodirlau and Teaca, 2009). .
The region (1000–400) cm-1
This region is also referred to as the finger print region,
having a lot of complex derivative of the alkyl (cyclobutane,
cyclopentane); the aryl derivatives, alkene residues (S–
CH=CH2). Aliphatic, substituted aromatic group, stretching
frequencies of S–CH3=Si–Cl2–Si–O, boron compounds,
halogens, substituted aromatic groups at 900–415 cm-1,
double bond nitrates (O–N=O) at 690–615 cm-1,
conjugated cyclic system at 960–930 cm-1, isocyanates at
675–605 cm-1, aliphatic at 580–555 cm-1,aromatic at 580–
430 cm-1, aryl (R1–C=C–R2) at 540 – 465 cm-1,
monosubstituted aryl 695 – 575 cm-1, alkane residues (R–
CH–CH2) at 995–445 cm-1, S–CH=CH2 at 965 – 860 cm-1,
-C≡CH bending at 700 – 600 cm-1 (Dean, 1999).
Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrographic
(GCMS) Analysis
Table 3 indicates the GCMS spectrum of PLO (Pure Luffa
aegyptiaca Oil) with composition of oleic acid (18:1)
27.12%, linoleic acid (18:2) 46.32%, palmitic acid (16:0)
20.90%, stearic acid (18:0) 5.94% and arachidonic acid
(20:0) 1.23% was converted successfully into diglyceride
and monoglyceride, and finally into glycerin and Fatty Acid
Methyl Esters (FAME) as shown in Figure 14 and 15,
where in BD1 (Biodiesel oil) showed that the
transesterification process consist of three consecutive
reversible reactions. Table 3 shows that the biodiesel
produced consisted of four most abundant FAMES
namely; oleic acid (18:1) 22.37%, linoleic acid (18:2)
50.19%, palmitic acid (16:0) 11.20%, stearic acid (18:0)
7.70% and arachidonic acid (18:1) 2.40% methylesters
was obtained (Xie et al., 2006; Barakos et al., 2008).
CONCLUSION
In the current investigation, it was confirmed that Luffa
aegyptiaca oil can be used as resources to obtain
biodiesel. The experimental results showed that
heterogeneous catalyzed transesterification reaction is a
promising area of research for the production of biodiesel
in a large scale. Effect of different parameters such as
temperature, time, reactant ratio and catalyst
concentration on the biodiesel yield was analyzed. The
best combination of the parameter was found at 6:1 molar
ratio of methanol to oil, 6 % kaolin clay/ MgO/Al2O3 base
catalyst, 333 k reaction temperature and 6 hours of
reaction time. The optimum condition yielded
approximately 80% of biodiesel. From the characterization
of the biodiesel, the physical properties of the biodiesel
from Luffa aegyptiaca oil with methanol were found to be
within the ASTM specified limit. Also, the characterization
of the kaolin clay/ MgO/Al2O3 base catalyst showed good
catalyst activity after calcination at 773 k. The viscosity and
density of Luffa aegyptiaca oil reduced substantially after
transesterification and it’s comparable to petrol diesel.
REFERENCE
American Society for Testing Materials (1998). Standard
Test Method for density and relative density of crude oil
by digital density analyzer. ASTM (D5002 - 94), ASTM,
Philadelphia, PA, pp. 263 – 266.
American Society for Testing Materials (1997). Standard
Test Material for Kinetic Viscosity of Transparent and
Opaque Liquid (Calculation of Dynamic Viscosity),
ASTM (D92 – 96a), ASTM, Philadelphia, PA, pp. 1– 9.
AOAC (2008). Official Method of Analysis International
Association of Official Analytical Chemist, 7th Edition,
Gaithersburg, Mongland, USA.
Barakos N, Pasias S, Papayannakos N. (2008).
Transesterification of triglycerides in higher and low
hydrocarbon. J. Bioscience and Bioengineering,
Biores. Techno. 99: 5037 – 5042.
Barbara S (2004). Infrared Spectroscopy; Fundamentals
and Applications. New York, US: John Wiley & Sons,
lnc, pp. 41.
Bordirlau R, Teaca CA. (2009). Fourier Transform Infrared
spectroscopy and thermal analysis of lignocellulose
fillers treated with organic anhydrides. Romanian J. of
physics, 54 (70): 93 – 104.
Clasen C, Kulicke WM. (2001). Determination of viscosity
and rheo-otical functions of water soluble cellulose.
Derivative Programme Polymer Science, 26; 18:39 –
1919.
9. Heterogeneous Transesterification of Luffa aegyptiaca Oil to Biodiesel
Int. Res. J. Biochem. Biotechnol. 088
APPENDIX
Table 1: Physico-chemical properties of PLO and BD1
Parameter PLO BD1 Standard
Ash content (%) - 0.02 ≤ 0.05
Freezing point (min) 5.00 30.00 56.00
Pour point (min) 5.00-12.00 3.00-5.00 3.00-5.00
Specific gravity (g/mL) 0.865 0.851 0.850-0.900
Density (g/mL, 303 k) 0.969 0.889 0.875-0.900
Flash point (k) 349 345 ≥ 373
Viscosity (Nm-2/sec, 313 k) 34.95 5.82 3.5-5.0
Colour greenish brown Bluff NA
Acid value 9.65 0.144 ≤10.0
Saponification value 194.95 61.33 ≤ 197
pH value 6.47 7.47 ≥ 7.15
Moisture content (%) 0.0045 0.0034 -
NA- Not available
PLO – pure Luffa aegyptiaca oil, BD1- biodiesel from Luffa aegyptiaca oil and German standard.
Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectrophotometric Analysis
Table 2: Characterization of PLO, BD1 and CD with their respective Bands and Functionality
Wave number (cm-1)
Peak PLO BD1 CD Functional Group Assessment
1 3473.99 3461.60 3434.13 (s, b) OH (stretch, H-bond) Alcohol, Phenols.
2 3005.69 3005.19 - (s) (m) –C–H, =C–H (all Stretch), alkenes and aromatics.
3 2923.77 2925.55 2982.71 (m) –C–H (stretch) alkanes.
4 2853.79 2854.62 2855.13 (m) –C–H (stretch) alkanes.
5 2679.52 2363.39 2365.10 (s, vb) -COOH Carboxylic Acid.
6 1745.48 1743.38 - (s) -C=O (stretch) esters, carboxylic acid and saturated aliphatic.
7 1655.29 1645.39 1635.89 Variable C=C (stretch).
8 1461.98 1462.23 1460.25 (m) -C–H (bend) alkanes.
9 1375.58 1362.42 1364.05 (m) -C–H (rock) alkanes.
10 1163.73 1170.96 - (m) -C–H wag (-CH2x) alkyl halides.
11 722.64 722.92 722.71 (m) -C–H (rock) alkanes.
12 585.30 512.36 510.95 (s) -C–Cl (stretch) alkyl halides
Pure Luffa aegyptiaca oil (PLO).
Luffa aegyptiaca biodiesel (BD1) using Kaolin catalyst.
Commercial diesel (CD).
Table 3: GC–MS Characterization of Luffa aegyptiaca Biodiesel.
S/No Free fatty acid Systematic name Quantity (%)
1 (9Z)–Octadecenoic acid, methyl ester
C18H34O2
Oleic acid
18:1
22.37
2 9, 12–Octadecenoic acid, methyl ester
C19H34O2
Linoleic acid
18:2
50.19
3 Hexadecenoic acid, methyl ester
C17H34O2
Palmitic acid
16:0
11.20
4 Octadecenoic acid, methyl ester
C18H36O2
Stearic acid
18:0
7.70
5 Cis-5, 8, 11, 14-Eicosatetraenoic, methyl ester
C8H16O2
Arachidonic acid
20:0
2.40
10. Heterogeneous Transesterification of Luffa aegyptiaca Oil to Biodiesel
Oche et al. 089
Figure 1: X-Ray Diffraction of Non-calcined
MgO/Al2O3/Kaolin Catalyst
Figure 2: X-Ray Diffraction of Calcined MgO/Al2O3/Kaolin
Catalyst
Figure 3: Experimental Setup of the Transesterification
process
Figure 4: Effect of Catalyst Dosage on Biodiesel Yield
Figure 5: Effect of Methanol/Oil ratio on Biodiesel Yield
Figure 6: Effect of Time of Reaction on Yield
Figure 7: Effect of Temperature on Biodiesel Yield
Figure 8: Effect of Catalyst Type on Biodiesel Yield
11. Heterogeneous Transesterification of Luffa aegyptiaca Oil to Biodiesel
Int. Res. J. Biochem. Biotechnol. 090
Figure 9: Effect of Temperature on the Viscous Flow of
PLO, BD1, CD
Figure 10: Effect of Temperature on the Viscosity of
Biodiesel (BD1) and Commercial Diesel (CD) Blends.
Figure 11: FTIR of Pure Luffa aegyptiaca Oil (PLO)
Figure 12: FTIR of Luffa aegyptiaca Biodiesel (BD 1)
Figure 13: FTIR of Commercial Diesel (CD) and Luffa
aegyptiaca Biodiesel (BD1)
Figure 14: Gas Chromatography- Mass Spectrograph of
Pure Luffa aegyptiaca Oil (PLO)
12. Heterogeneous Transesterification of Luffa aegyptiaca Oil to Biodiesel
Oche et al. 091
Figure 15: Gas Chromatography- Mass Spectrograph of Luffa aegyptiaca Biodiesel (BD1)