This document discusses different theories about how words refer, focusing on proper names. It describes the descriptive theory of referring, which claims that expressions refer by expressing descriptive features of the things they refer to. It also introduces the causal/historical theory. The document then discusses issues with the descriptive theory and proper names, covering viewpoints from Frege, Russell, and Strawson. Frege believes proper names have both a sense and referent, while Russell refuses the idea they have sense. Strawson introduces the concept of reference borrowing to explain how referring can occur without an identifying description.
This document discusses linguistic semantics and the study of meaning in language. It covers several key topics:
- The definition of semantics as the study of meaning and how words can be meaningful. Meaning comes from the use of words and signs in language.
- Theories of meaning including conceptual views that see meaning as concepts in the mind linked to words, and views that see meaning arising from the relationship between symbols, concepts, and referents in the world.
- Lexical relations like synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and meronymy that examine relationships between words.
- The difference between sentence meaning derived compositionally from words, and utterance meaning derived from context of use.
This document summarizes John Locke's ideational theory of meaning. According to Locke's theory, meaning is based on ideas in the mind that are formed through sense perception and experience, rather than innate ideas. Words signify these ideas, and ideas indirectly signify real-world objects. Locke believed language allows us to communicate our thoughts by representing them with words that stand for smaller components of thought called "Lockean ideas". However, some objections to Locke's theory are that ideas can vary between individuals whereas meaning is a public phenomenon, and that some meaningful sentences do not correspond to actual mental experiences.
Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, focusing on intra-linguistic relations between words independent of context. Reference relates a linguistic form to real-world entities. Sense is abstract while reference deals with experience. For example, "dog" has the sense of domesticated canine but can refer to different actual dogs. A form can have multiple references but the same reference can be denoted by different senses. Not all forms have reference if the referred entity doesn't exist. Sense and reference are both parts of meaning and their relationship is explained through examples.
The referential theory of meaning holds that (1) words function as labels that stand for or refer to objects, people, and states of affairs in the real world, and (2) the meaning of a sentence is determined by the individual references of its components and how they are combined. However, this theory faces four key problems: (1) some words like "nobody" don't refer to real objects, (2) words can have different meanings despite referring to the same thing, (3) the objects words refer to are constantly changing, and (4) people's semantic expertise, or ability to identify referents, varies.
THIS THE THEORY OF OGDEN AND RICHARDS ON THE MEANING. it extract from their book of meaning of meaning. in which they discussed about the semantics triangle.
This document discusses different views of semantics and the relationship between words and their meanings. It dismisses the view that words are simply names for objects in the world. While this view may apply to some nouns, it cannot account for other parts of speech like verbs, adjectives, and prepositions. The relationship between words and their meanings is more complex, as a single word can refer to abstract concepts, non-physical objects, and even different physical objects. Grammarians use terms like "abstract things" but the view that all words name objects in the world is an oversimplification that fails to explain the full complexity of language and semantics.
This document discusses different theories about how words refer, focusing on proper names. It describes the descriptive theory of referring, which claims that expressions refer by expressing descriptive features of the things they refer to. It also introduces the causal/historical theory. The document then discusses issues with the descriptive theory and proper names, covering viewpoints from Frege, Russell, and Strawson. Frege believes proper names have both a sense and referent, while Russell refuses the idea they have sense. Strawson introduces the concept of reference borrowing to explain how referring can occur without an identifying description.
This document discusses linguistic semantics and the study of meaning in language. It covers several key topics:
- The definition of semantics as the study of meaning and how words can be meaningful. Meaning comes from the use of words and signs in language.
- Theories of meaning including conceptual views that see meaning as concepts in the mind linked to words, and views that see meaning arising from the relationship between symbols, concepts, and referents in the world.
- Lexical relations like synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and meronymy that examine relationships between words.
- The difference between sentence meaning derived compositionally from words, and utterance meaning derived from context of use.
This document summarizes John Locke's ideational theory of meaning. According to Locke's theory, meaning is based on ideas in the mind that are formed through sense perception and experience, rather than innate ideas. Words signify these ideas, and ideas indirectly signify real-world objects. Locke believed language allows us to communicate our thoughts by representing them with words that stand for smaller components of thought called "Lockean ideas". However, some objections to Locke's theory are that ideas can vary between individuals whereas meaning is a public phenomenon, and that some meaningful sentences do not correspond to actual mental experiences.
Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, focusing on intra-linguistic relations between words independent of context. Reference relates a linguistic form to real-world entities. Sense is abstract while reference deals with experience. For example, "dog" has the sense of domesticated canine but can refer to different actual dogs. A form can have multiple references but the same reference can be denoted by different senses. Not all forms have reference if the referred entity doesn't exist. Sense and reference are both parts of meaning and their relationship is explained through examples.
The referential theory of meaning holds that (1) words function as labels that stand for or refer to objects, people, and states of affairs in the real world, and (2) the meaning of a sentence is determined by the individual references of its components and how they are combined. However, this theory faces four key problems: (1) some words like "nobody" don't refer to real objects, (2) words can have different meanings despite referring to the same thing, (3) the objects words refer to are constantly changing, and (4) people's semantic expertise, or ability to identify referents, varies.
THIS THE THEORY OF OGDEN AND RICHARDS ON THE MEANING. it extract from their book of meaning of meaning. in which they discussed about the semantics triangle.
This document discusses different views of semantics and the relationship between words and their meanings. It dismisses the view that words are simply names for objects in the world. While this view may apply to some nouns, it cannot account for other parts of speech like verbs, adjectives, and prepositions. The relationship between words and their meanings is more complex, as a single word can refer to abstract concepts, non-physical objects, and even different physical objects. Grammarians use terms like "abstract things" but the view that all words name objects in the world is an oversimplification that fails to explain the full complexity of language and semantics.
This document discusses componential analysis, which is a method proposed by structural semanticists to analyze word meanings. It breaks down a word's meaning into semantic features or components. Componential analysis provides insight into word meanings and relationships between related words. It analyzes dimensions like gender, age, etc. for related words. Plus and minus signs indicate whether a feature is present or absent in a word's meaning. Componential analysis has advantages like determining meaning acceptability and analyzing polysemy. However, it does not handle all semantic relations equally well.
Deconstruction is a strategy for analyzing texts developed by Jacques Derrida that focuses on ambiguities and contradictions in language. It originated from thinkers like Rene Descartes and Fredrick Nietzsche who questioned the objective truth of language. Structuralism, which sought to understand how language systems work, preceded deconstruction. Ferdinand de Saussure's study of language introduced concepts like the signifier/signified and langue/parole that deconstruction examines. Deconstruction analyzes binary oppositions in texts and seeks to reverse the relationship between dominant and non-dominant elements.
Semantics is the study of meanings of words, phrases and sentences. It involves analyzing conceptual meanings, which are the basic components of a word's meaning, and associative meanings, which are connotations attached to a word. Semantics also examines how words fulfill roles like agent, theme, and experiencer within sentences, and lexical relations between words such as synonyms, antonyms, and polysemy.
Deixis refers to linguistic expressions that can only be interpreted based on contextual information like who is speaking, their location, or the time. There are several types of deixis:
1. Person deixis refers to pronouns like I, you, he, she that indicate speakers and addressees.
2. Place or spatial deixis uses words like here, there, this, that to indicate locations relative to the speaker.
3. Time or temporal deixis includes words like now, then, tomorrow to reference times in relation to the moment of speaking.
4. Other types include discourse deixis which references elements within a conversation or text, and social deixis which reflects social relationships
This document discusses the scope of semantics and the relationship between words, meanings, and concepts. It makes three main points:
1) Words are not just names for objects, as they can also represent actions, qualities, and abstract ideas. Meaning is not simply defined by denotation.
2) Bertrand Russell distinguished between "object words" that label concrete things, and "dictionary words" that are defined in relation to object words.
3) Linguists have proposed different models of the relationship between words, meanings, and concepts, including de Saussure's signifier-signified model and Bloomfield's stimulus-response model. Meaning depends on both linguistic and real-world
This document discusses componential analysis and semantic decomposition. Componential analysis involves analyzing linguistic items like word meanings into combinations of defining features that can be used to compare each item. Semantic decomposition believes that word meanings can be built up from simpler words, such as defining "stallion" as a combination of "horse" and "male". Examples are provided for both componential analysis and semantic decomposition.
This document provides an overview of semantics, the study of linguistic meaning. It discusses several subfields of semantics including lexical semantics, which examines word meanings, and sentential semantics, which analyzes the meanings of larger syntactic units. The document also explores topics such as what speakers know about language meaning, ambiguity, compositional semantics, lexical relations between words, and thematic roles. Overall, the document outlines key concepts in semantics and how meaning is constructed in language.
This document discusses linguistic politeness and various models of politeness. It defines politeness as linguistic structures that express a speaker's attitude in a pragmatic rather than semantic way. Interactions involve both conveying meaning and observing social rules shaped by distance and closeness between participants. Watts groups standard behaviors like "thank you" and address terms under the term "politic behavior" which society expects in certain situations. The document outlines politeness models including Lakoff's social norm model, Leech's conversational maxim model, Fraser and Nolen's conversational contract model, and Brown and Levinson's face theory of politeness involving face-threatening acts and strategies to maintain one's own and others' positive and negative face.
Pragmatics is the study of how context contributes to meaning. It studies how people choose language in social interactions and how those choices affect others. Pragmatics looks at speaker meaning rather than just word meanings alone. It examines how inferences, context, and the unsaid contribute to communicated meaning. Pragmatics also studies deixis, which uses language to point or refer to people, places, times, and things that depend on shared context between speakers and listeners. Politeness and face are also part of pragmatics, examining how people navigate social relationships and maintain self-image through their language choices.
The document discusses several theories of semantics, including truth-conditional semantics, generative semantics, and semantic competence. Truth-conditional semantics claims that the meaning of a sentence is identical to the conditions under which it is true. Generative semantics aims to give rules to predict which word combinations form grammatical sentences. Semantic competence refers to a native speaker's ability to recognize utterances as meaningless even if grammatically correct.
1. In the first conversation, the Quality maxim is being flouted.
2. In the second conversation, the Quantity maxim is being flouted.
3. In the third conversation, the Relevance maxim is being flouted.
4. In the fourth conversation, the Manner maxim of avoiding ambiguity is being flouted.
2. Yes, the implicatures are successful in each case because the hearer recognizes that a maxim is being flouted and is able to infer the implicated meaning.
This document discusses pragmatics and its relationship to linguistics. It defines pragmatics as the study of meaning as it relates to speakers, addressees, context and knowledge of language use. Pragmatics focuses on utterances within a given context. Unlike grammar, pragmatics allows humans into the analysis and looks at principles rather than rules. It deals with processes rather than products. The document provides several definitions of pragmatics and outlines its distinction from semantics and syntax.
This document discusses the seven types of meaning in semantics according to Geoffrey Leech:
1. Conceptual meaning refers to the literal or dictionary definition of a word.
2. Connotative meaning involves the social and cultural values associated with a word.
3. Social meaning depends on aspects of society and dialect.
4. Affective meaning refers to the emotions and attitudes conveyed.
5. Reflective meaning involves multiple conceptual meanings from a single sense.
6. Collocative meaning consists of associations acquired based on common words in the environment.
7. Thematic meaning is communicated through how the message is organized, ordered and emphasized.
This document discusses key concepts in semantics including the signifier-signified relationship proposed by Saussure where a word is the signifier and the object it refers to is the signified. It also discusses how meaning depends on relationships between linguistic elements, and how words can have different types of meanings. The document notes there are issues with defining the word as a clear semantic unit and different types of words like transparent, opaque, and phonaesthetic words.
Oppositeness and dissimilarity of sense and ambiguityBabar Manzoor
The document discusses different types of relationships between words and meanings:
Binary antonyms are pairs of words that are opposites and cannot both apply, like true/false. Converses describe relationships that switch subjects, like parent/child. Gradable antonyms vary on a scale, like hot/cold. Homonyms have unrelated meanings, like bank, while polysemous words have closely related meanings, like mouth. Sentences can be structurally ambiguous due to word order or lexically ambiguous due to ambiguous words. Referentially versatile phrases like she can refer to different people without being ambiguous.
Post-structuralism emerged in the 1960s as a response to structuralism. It focuses on examining sources of meaning beyond the author, such as readers and cultural norms. Key figures include Roland Barthes, who argued the author is not the prime source of a text's meaning, and Jacques Derrida, who proposed theoretical limitations to structuralism. Post-structuralism differs from structuralism in its philosophical origins, emphasis on language as unstable rather than orderly, and aim to question assumptions rather than establish truth. Deconstruction examines how meanings play in language and change over contexts to understand silenced voices.
The document discusses different types of meaning in language as classified by linguist G. Leech. It describes conceptual meaning as the essential, logical meaning of language. Associative meaning includes connotative meaning, which is the additional implied meaning beyond conceptual content, as well as social, affective, reflective, collocative, and thematic meanings. Connotative meaning can vary between cultures and individuals and is more unstable than conceptual meaning. Social meaning conveys information about language usage contexts. Affective meaning shows attitude and evaluation. Reflective meaning arises from multiple conceptual meanings. Collocative meaning comes from words that commonly occur together. Thematic meaning is based on how the speaker organizes their message.
This document discusses implicature, which refers to what a speaker suggests or implies beyond the literal meaning of an utterance. There are two types of implicature: conversational implicature, which is derived from conversational principles and assumptions, and conventional implicature, which is associated with specific words. Conversational implicature can be generalized or particularized. Scalar implicature communicates additional information based on a scale of values used in an utterance. The document provides examples to illustrate these concepts of implicature.
This document discusses implicature in pragmatics. It defines implicature as what is communicated less what is said. Implicature can be divided into conventional implicature, derived from specific words or expressions, and conversational implicature, derived from the context of an utterance. Conversational implicature includes generalized implicature, derived without context, and particularized implicature, derived from a specific context. The document provides examples to illustrate these different types of implicature.
This document discusses reference and sense as two aspects of semantics. Reference deals with the relationship between language and the real world, referring to things that exist. Sense deals with relationships within language itself and does not refer to anything in the real world. While an expression can have only one reference, it can have multiple senses. The sense of an expression is its meaning and place within the semantic system of a language. Reference and sense are related but different - an expression has meaning (sense) but not necessarily a reference, and two expressions can have the same referent but different senses.
The document discusses the triangle of reference and the relationship between sense and reference in language. [1] It explains that the triangle of reference describes how words suggest ideas in the mind that relate to real-world objects. [2] It then discusses the difference between sense, which deals with relationships within language, and reference, which deals with relationships between language and the world. [3] It provides examples of how expressions can have variable or constant reference and how the same sense can belong to expressions in different languages.
This document discusses componential analysis, which is a method proposed by structural semanticists to analyze word meanings. It breaks down a word's meaning into semantic features or components. Componential analysis provides insight into word meanings and relationships between related words. It analyzes dimensions like gender, age, etc. for related words. Plus and minus signs indicate whether a feature is present or absent in a word's meaning. Componential analysis has advantages like determining meaning acceptability and analyzing polysemy. However, it does not handle all semantic relations equally well.
Deconstruction is a strategy for analyzing texts developed by Jacques Derrida that focuses on ambiguities and contradictions in language. It originated from thinkers like Rene Descartes and Fredrick Nietzsche who questioned the objective truth of language. Structuralism, which sought to understand how language systems work, preceded deconstruction. Ferdinand de Saussure's study of language introduced concepts like the signifier/signified and langue/parole that deconstruction examines. Deconstruction analyzes binary oppositions in texts and seeks to reverse the relationship between dominant and non-dominant elements.
Semantics is the study of meanings of words, phrases and sentences. It involves analyzing conceptual meanings, which are the basic components of a word's meaning, and associative meanings, which are connotations attached to a word. Semantics also examines how words fulfill roles like agent, theme, and experiencer within sentences, and lexical relations between words such as synonyms, antonyms, and polysemy.
Deixis refers to linguistic expressions that can only be interpreted based on contextual information like who is speaking, their location, or the time. There are several types of deixis:
1. Person deixis refers to pronouns like I, you, he, she that indicate speakers and addressees.
2. Place or spatial deixis uses words like here, there, this, that to indicate locations relative to the speaker.
3. Time or temporal deixis includes words like now, then, tomorrow to reference times in relation to the moment of speaking.
4. Other types include discourse deixis which references elements within a conversation or text, and social deixis which reflects social relationships
This document discusses the scope of semantics and the relationship between words, meanings, and concepts. It makes three main points:
1) Words are not just names for objects, as they can also represent actions, qualities, and abstract ideas. Meaning is not simply defined by denotation.
2) Bertrand Russell distinguished between "object words" that label concrete things, and "dictionary words" that are defined in relation to object words.
3) Linguists have proposed different models of the relationship between words, meanings, and concepts, including de Saussure's signifier-signified model and Bloomfield's stimulus-response model. Meaning depends on both linguistic and real-world
This document discusses componential analysis and semantic decomposition. Componential analysis involves analyzing linguistic items like word meanings into combinations of defining features that can be used to compare each item. Semantic decomposition believes that word meanings can be built up from simpler words, such as defining "stallion" as a combination of "horse" and "male". Examples are provided for both componential analysis and semantic decomposition.
This document provides an overview of semantics, the study of linguistic meaning. It discusses several subfields of semantics including lexical semantics, which examines word meanings, and sentential semantics, which analyzes the meanings of larger syntactic units. The document also explores topics such as what speakers know about language meaning, ambiguity, compositional semantics, lexical relations between words, and thematic roles. Overall, the document outlines key concepts in semantics and how meaning is constructed in language.
This document discusses linguistic politeness and various models of politeness. It defines politeness as linguistic structures that express a speaker's attitude in a pragmatic rather than semantic way. Interactions involve both conveying meaning and observing social rules shaped by distance and closeness between participants. Watts groups standard behaviors like "thank you" and address terms under the term "politic behavior" which society expects in certain situations. The document outlines politeness models including Lakoff's social norm model, Leech's conversational maxim model, Fraser and Nolen's conversational contract model, and Brown and Levinson's face theory of politeness involving face-threatening acts and strategies to maintain one's own and others' positive and negative face.
Pragmatics is the study of how context contributes to meaning. It studies how people choose language in social interactions and how those choices affect others. Pragmatics looks at speaker meaning rather than just word meanings alone. It examines how inferences, context, and the unsaid contribute to communicated meaning. Pragmatics also studies deixis, which uses language to point or refer to people, places, times, and things that depend on shared context between speakers and listeners. Politeness and face are also part of pragmatics, examining how people navigate social relationships and maintain self-image through their language choices.
The document discusses several theories of semantics, including truth-conditional semantics, generative semantics, and semantic competence. Truth-conditional semantics claims that the meaning of a sentence is identical to the conditions under which it is true. Generative semantics aims to give rules to predict which word combinations form grammatical sentences. Semantic competence refers to a native speaker's ability to recognize utterances as meaningless even if grammatically correct.
1. In the first conversation, the Quality maxim is being flouted.
2. In the second conversation, the Quantity maxim is being flouted.
3. In the third conversation, the Relevance maxim is being flouted.
4. In the fourth conversation, the Manner maxim of avoiding ambiguity is being flouted.
2. Yes, the implicatures are successful in each case because the hearer recognizes that a maxim is being flouted and is able to infer the implicated meaning.
This document discusses pragmatics and its relationship to linguistics. It defines pragmatics as the study of meaning as it relates to speakers, addressees, context and knowledge of language use. Pragmatics focuses on utterances within a given context. Unlike grammar, pragmatics allows humans into the analysis and looks at principles rather than rules. It deals with processes rather than products. The document provides several definitions of pragmatics and outlines its distinction from semantics and syntax.
This document discusses the seven types of meaning in semantics according to Geoffrey Leech:
1. Conceptual meaning refers to the literal or dictionary definition of a word.
2. Connotative meaning involves the social and cultural values associated with a word.
3. Social meaning depends on aspects of society and dialect.
4. Affective meaning refers to the emotions and attitudes conveyed.
5. Reflective meaning involves multiple conceptual meanings from a single sense.
6. Collocative meaning consists of associations acquired based on common words in the environment.
7. Thematic meaning is communicated through how the message is organized, ordered and emphasized.
This document discusses key concepts in semantics including the signifier-signified relationship proposed by Saussure where a word is the signifier and the object it refers to is the signified. It also discusses how meaning depends on relationships between linguistic elements, and how words can have different types of meanings. The document notes there are issues with defining the word as a clear semantic unit and different types of words like transparent, opaque, and phonaesthetic words.
Oppositeness and dissimilarity of sense and ambiguityBabar Manzoor
The document discusses different types of relationships between words and meanings:
Binary antonyms are pairs of words that are opposites and cannot both apply, like true/false. Converses describe relationships that switch subjects, like parent/child. Gradable antonyms vary on a scale, like hot/cold. Homonyms have unrelated meanings, like bank, while polysemous words have closely related meanings, like mouth. Sentences can be structurally ambiguous due to word order or lexically ambiguous due to ambiguous words. Referentially versatile phrases like she can refer to different people without being ambiguous.
Post-structuralism emerged in the 1960s as a response to structuralism. It focuses on examining sources of meaning beyond the author, such as readers and cultural norms. Key figures include Roland Barthes, who argued the author is not the prime source of a text's meaning, and Jacques Derrida, who proposed theoretical limitations to structuralism. Post-structuralism differs from structuralism in its philosophical origins, emphasis on language as unstable rather than orderly, and aim to question assumptions rather than establish truth. Deconstruction examines how meanings play in language and change over contexts to understand silenced voices.
The document discusses different types of meaning in language as classified by linguist G. Leech. It describes conceptual meaning as the essential, logical meaning of language. Associative meaning includes connotative meaning, which is the additional implied meaning beyond conceptual content, as well as social, affective, reflective, collocative, and thematic meanings. Connotative meaning can vary between cultures and individuals and is more unstable than conceptual meaning. Social meaning conveys information about language usage contexts. Affective meaning shows attitude and evaluation. Reflective meaning arises from multiple conceptual meanings. Collocative meaning comes from words that commonly occur together. Thematic meaning is based on how the speaker organizes their message.
This document discusses implicature, which refers to what a speaker suggests or implies beyond the literal meaning of an utterance. There are two types of implicature: conversational implicature, which is derived from conversational principles and assumptions, and conventional implicature, which is associated with specific words. Conversational implicature can be generalized or particularized. Scalar implicature communicates additional information based on a scale of values used in an utterance. The document provides examples to illustrate these concepts of implicature.
This document discusses implicature in pragmatics. It defines implicature as what is communicated less what is said. Implicature can be divided into conventional implicature, derived from specific words or expressions, and conversational implicature, derived from the context of an utterance. Conversational implicature includes generalized implicature, derived without context, and particularized implicature, derived from a specific context. The document provides examples to illustrate these different types of implicature.
This document discusses reference and sense as two aspects of semantics. Reference deals with the relationship between language and the real world, referring to things that exist. Sense deals with relationships within language itself and does not refer to anything in the real world. While an expression can have only one reference, it can have multiple senses. The sense of an expression is its meaning and place within the semantic system of a language. Reference and sense are related but different - an expression has meaning (sense) but not necessarily a reference, and two expressions can have the same referent but different senses.
The document discusses the triangle of reference and the relationship between sense and reference in language. [1] It explains that the triangle of reference describes how words suggest ideas in the mind that relate to real-world objects. [2] It then discusses the difference between sense, which deals with relationships within language, and reference, which deals with relationships between language and the world. [3] It provides examples of how expressions can have variable or constant reference and how the same sense can belong to expressions in different languages.
This document discusses the concepts of reference and sense in linguistics. Reference deals with the relationship between language and real-world entities, while sense relates to the system of relationships between linguistic elements themselves. Referring expressions identify entities, with referring and non-referring expressions defined. Referents can be unique, variable, concrete, abstract, countable or non-countable. Sense involves the meanings and relationships between words and phrases. Ambiguous, anomalous, contradictory and paraphrased sentences are examined.
This document discusses semantics and the key concepts of reference, sense, and referring expressions. It defines semantics as the study of meaning in language. Reference deals with the relationship between language and the world, while sense deals with relationships inside language. Referring expressions are used to refer to something and can be indefinite or definite noun phrases depending on context. The document provides examples and explanations of these semantic concepts.
Reference, Sense, and Referring Expression in SemanticsErsa Dewana
This document discusses reference, sense, and referring expressions in semantics. It defines semantics as the study of meaning in language. Reference deals with the relationship between language and the world, while sense deals with relationships inside language. There are two types of reference: variable reference, where a word can refer to different things, and constant reference, where a word always refers to the same thing. Sense is the place of an expression in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions. A referring expression is any expression used to refer to something, and can be indefinite or definite depending on the context. Opaque contexts and equative sentences are also discussed in relation to referring expressions.
This document discusses two key aspects of meaning proposed by German semanticist Gottlob Frege: sense and reference. [1] Reference refers to the relationship between a linguistic expression and something in the real world. Sense refers to the semantic relationship an expression has within a language. The document provides examples and properties of reference, such as how one expression can have multiple referents depending on context. It also distinguishes between sense, which is the meaning or thought conveyed by an expression, and reference, which is the object represented.
This is an introduction to the topic "Reference and Meaning" as one of the issues/concerns of philosophy of language. The thoughts of John Locke is also included here. The reference for this material is "Philosophy of Language" by Hornsby and Longworth.
Unit 6 - Predicates, Referring Expressions, and Universe of DiscourseAshwag Al Hamid
- Speakers refer to things in their utterances using referring expressions. Referring expressions give clues to help the hearer identify the referent. Predicates may be embedded in referring expressions.
- Generic sentences make statements about whole unrestricted classes rather than particular individuals.
- While semantics is concerned with meaning and existence, imagination allows us to refer to nonexistent things. The universe of discourse is the world, real or imaginary, being discussed. Successful communication requires assuming the same universe of discourse.
Gottlob Frege was a German mathematician, logician, and philosopher born in 1848 in Wismar, Germany. He studied mathematics and physics at the University of Jena and furthered his studies in mathematics at the University of Gottingen, where he received his doctorate in 1873. Frege made seminal contributions to logic and the foundations of mathematics through his invention of quantified variables and first-order predicate calculus. He also created a formal language called Begriffsschrift to represent logical concepts and arguments.
This document discusses different theories of semantics and meaning. It begins by describing early theories that saw meaning as the direct link between words and things. Later theorists argued that meaning involves the relationship between words, concepts, and things, with concepts mediating between words and what they refer to. Meaning was then seen as emerging from the use of words in specific contexts. Later sections discuss theories of sense versus reference, how meaning can be studied quantitatively using methods like "20 questions", and how semantic fields can be used to organize vocabulary.
Foundational theories of meaning attempt to specify the semantic properties of expressions in natural languages. These theories are divided into mentalist and non-mentalist approaches. Mentalist theories explain meaning in terms of the mental states of language users, such as intentions (Gricean program) or beliefs and conventions. Non-mentalist theories explain meaning without reference to mental states, instead focusing on causal origins, truth conditions, regularities in use, or social norms. The document provides details on theories within the mentalist and non-mentalist categories.
The document introduces the concept of referring expressions and discusses how some expressions can be used to refer to objects or people depending on the context, while others can never be used to refer. It also defines opaque contexts as parts of sentences where substituting co-referential expressions can change the meaning, and equative sentences as those used to assert the identity of two referring expressions.
This document discusses denotation and connotation in word choice and meaning. It begins by defining denotation as the literal or dictionary meaning of a word, while connotation refers to the implied meanings and associations that add attitude or tone. Words can have positive, negative, or neutral connotations. Examples are given of words with different denotative and connotative meanings. Readers are encouraged to consider both denotation and connotation when analyzing words and how writers use specific word choice to convey attitude. A chart is provided for readers to identify the denotative and connotative meanings of sample words.
Unit 2: Sentences, Utterances, and PropositionsAshwag Al Hamid
The document discusses the key concepts of utterance, sentence, and proposition in semantics. It defines an utterance as a physical act of saying by a speaker on a particular occasion. A sentence is an abstract linguistic object composed of words arranged according to grammatical rules. A proposition is the aspect of a declarative sentence's meaning that describes a state of affairs in the world that can be true or false. Propositions are central to semantics as the meanings of sentences involve propositions.
This is part of our lesson in Philosophy of Language. This covers parts of the Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigation and Brenner's commentaries on Wittgenstein's work, along with my choice of illustrations and pictures.
This is the second part of the lesson "Reference and Meaning" in Philosophy of Language. The thoughts of John Stuart Mill is discussed in these slides. The reference for this material is " Philosophy of Language" by Hornsby and Longworth.
Unit 8 Words and Things - Extensions and PrototypesAshwag Al Hamid
This document discusses the relationships between sense, extension, and reference in determining the meaning of linguistic expressions. It defines extension as the set of all individuals a predicate can be applied to, reference as the thing picked out by a referring expression on a particular occasion, and prototype as the most typical member of a predicate's extension. The document explores how these concepts help explain a speaker's ability to group entities and make descriptive statements using language. However, it also notes limitations, such as the fuzziness of many predicates' extensions and cultural differences in prototypes.
This article aims to summarize the key ideas of William of Occam and his concept of Occam's razor through an analysis of Occam's texts and those of his commentators. It discusses Occam's views on intuitive knowledge based on experience versus abstractive knowledge. Occam believed intuitive knowledge directly corresponds to real, contingent facts, while abstractive knowledge forms universal concepts from discrete objects. The article provides biographical details on Occam and contextualizes his ideas within the cultural and intellectual developments of the 14th century.
"Making sense of LOGIC" by Tibor MolnarAlec Gisbert
This document provides an overview of logic, including:
1. It discusses where logic resides conceptually, distinguishing between physical and non-physical existence and arguing that logic exists in the conceptual domain of thoughts and ideas.
2. It defines logic as a set of rules for correctly manipulating thoughts through symbolic representation and reference, regardless of whether the thoughts are about real or imaginary entities.
3. It outlines some key elements of logic, including quantifiers, connectives, statements/propositions, and material implication.
4. It discusses truth-functionality and some paradoxes that arise from material implication not aligning with intuitive understandings of conditionals.
Frege's triangle is a model that distinguishes between a real object, the concept or idea of an object, and the linguistic symbol that represents it. It illustrates the difference between the sense of a symbol, which is its meaning or concept, and its reference, which is the real-world object it denotes. For example, the word "tree" has a sense of a tall plant with wood and leaves, while its reference would be an actual tree. Frege argued that understanding the distinction between sense and reference is important for accurately communicating information through language.
This document discusses different theories of semantics and meaning. It begins by describing early theories that saw meaning as the direct link between words and things. Later theorists argued that meaning involves the relationship between words, concepts, and things, with concepts mediating between words and what they refer to. Meaning was then seen as emerging from the use of words in specific contexts. Later sections discuss theories of sense versus reference, semantic spaces, semantic fields, and analyzing meaning at the level of lexemes rather than words. The document provides an overview of the development of semantic theory from a focus on reference to emphasis on sense and context of use.
This document discusses different theories of semantics and meaning. It begins by describing early theories that saw meaning as the direct link between words and things. Later theorists argued that meaning involves the relationship between words, concepts, and things, with concepts mediating between words and what they refer to. Meaning was then seen as emerging from the use of words in specific contexts. Later sections discuss theories of sense versus reference, semantic spaces, semantic structure of words and lexemes, and semantic fields. The document provides an overview of the development of semantic theory from relating words directly to things to understanding meaning as arising from usage and concepts.
Slang language الدكتور كرار رأفت علوش < Dr. karrar raafat alwashDr. Karrar Alwash
This document discusses slang language and metaphors. It begins by defining slang and explaining how slang evolves based on generational differences and group membership. It then defines metaphors and provides examples of common metaphors. The document discusses different types of metaphors, including implied metaphors, sustained metaphors, dead metaphors, and mixed metaphors. It concludes by outlining the key elements involved in the working mechanism of a metaphor, including the metaphor producer and receiver, the source and target domains, and the role of context.
The document examines how semantics, through sense and reference relations, provides some guidance for word meaning but is limited. Pragmatics, through exploring possible interpretations and understanding context and speaker intent, provides additional insight. The study aims to investigate how semantics and pragmatics are related and whether sense and reference alone are sufficient for word meaning or if pragmatic factors like illocutionary force also contribute. It hypothesizes that sense and reference require additional "force relations" from pragmatics to fully determine word meaning.
What is iconicity and what makes it a significant part of linguisticsssuser9e60d6
Iconicity refers to the degree to which a symbol or representation resembles the object or concept it signifies. In other words, it's the extent to which the form of a symbol reflects its meaning. For example, a drawing of a heart representing love is considered iconic because the shape of the heart resembles the organ associated with emotions and affection.
This document discusses the difference between sense and reference in language as introduced by philosopher Gottlob Frege. Frege was interested in differentiating between the terms "sense" and "reference" based on the observation that people continued to use the terms "morning star" and "evening star" to refer to the planet Venus, even after it was known to be the same astronomical object. The document explores applications of this distinction between sense and reference in literary interpretation, case teaching, and case-based research. It argues the distinction is important for understanding how to properly invoke and interpret cases for different purposes like teaching decision-making versus conducting research on strategy.
This document provides an overview of semiotics, including its history, definitions, key figures, and concepts. Semiotics is the study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation. It has its roots in ancient Greek philosophy and more recently in the work of Ferdinand de Saussure, Charles Sanders Pierce, and Roland Barthes. Saussure introduced key concepts like the signifier/signified relationship and the arbitrary nature of linguistic signs. Pierce explored signs in a broader context and classified three types of signs: symbols, icons, and indexes. Barthes studied how signs and images represent culture and ideology, introducing concepts like denotation, connotation, and myth. Semiotics provides tools for analyzing meaning in texts and
2.Explanations of Word Meaning, Semantic Theory Ruth M. Kempson 1977Amer Al Amery
UNIVERSITY OF BABYLON
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION FOR HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
Semantic Theory Ruth M. Kempson 1977
2.Explanations of Word Meaning,
By
A'MER SAGHEER ALLWAN AL-A'MERY
amer.amery@Yahoo.com
https://www.facebook.com/profile.php?id=100004785700427
SUPERVISED BY
Asst. Prof. Dr. QASSIM ABBAS AlTufaili, Ph.D.
qassimdhayf@Gmail.com
https://www.facebook.com/profile.php?id=100001523273930&ref=br_rs
AD 2016 AH 1437
The document discusses several key concepts in linguistics:
1) It describes how American structural linguistics in the early 20th century diverged from European structuralism by taking a more descriptive approach and emphasizing language description over interpretation.
2) It explains complementary distribution as the relationship between elements that occupy non-overlapping environments.
3) It provides examples of echo questions, which repeat part of a previous question for clarification.
Semiotics is the study of signs and meaning-making. It examines how signs like words and images produce meaning, especially in cultural artifacts and communication. There are two main approaches: Saussure analyzed language as a system of signs composed of a signifier and signified. Peirce defined the sign as having a representamen, object, and interpretant, and classified signs as icons, indices, or symbols based on their relationship to their object. Semiotics provides tools to reveal hidden meanings in cultural texts and communication.
Intersubjectivity refers to the psychological relationship between people and the shared meanings constructed in human interactions. It has been explored in philosophy, psychology, sociology and psychoanalysis. Key authors who studied intersubjectivity in psychoanalysis include Heinz Kuhot, Robert Stolorow, George E. Atwood, Jessica Benjamin, and Silvia Montefoshci. Jessica Benjamin wrote about intersubjectivity originating from Jurgen Habermas' concept of "the intersubjectivity of mutual understanding." The article argues that psychoanalytic relationships involve an unconscious intersubjectivity between analyst and patient.
This document discusses the study of meaning and semantics. It begins by defining meaning as the relation between a sign and its referent. Meanings can be concrete, referring to real-world objects, or abstract, referring to ideas. Words can have denotative meanings, which encode their basic referent, as well as connotative meanings, which extend the word's usage. Figurative language like metaphor and metonymy also contribute to a word's meaning. Theories from philosophers like Austin and Searle are discussed regarding how language performs acts. Gestures are also found to reinforce meanings in utterances. Conceptual metaphors shape abstract thought, with metaphors rooted in embodied experiences.
The document discusses several classic approaches to understanding the meaning and representation of words, including semantic networks, semantic features, prototype and exemplar theories, and how concepts are combined. It also covers figurative language like metaphor and idioms, as well as connectionist approaches and the neuroscience of semantics. Key topics include how semantic memory is organized, how word meanings relate to concepts and categories, and experimental evidence from tasks like sentence verification.
There are several views on the nature of objects persisting through time and personal identity:
3Dism and 4Dism propose different views on whether objects occupy single or multiple spacetime regions as they endure through time. The coincidence problem arises from cases like the lump of clay becoming a statue, seeming to imply two objects occupy the same space. Solutions include total overlap, temporal parts overlap, or there being only one object.
Views of personal identity include the biological view that it relies on the organism persisting, the psychological view that it relies on psychological continuity and memory, and nihilism that personal identity is a fiction and there is no unified self. Various problems arise regarding these views and their implications.
This document contains definitions and examples of several linguistic concepts:
1. It defines symbol, referent, denotation, connotation, and implication, providing examples to illustrate the differences between these concepts.
2. It also defines and provides examples of euphemism, ambiguity, metaphor, simile, synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, and homonym.
3. The document is written in an educational style, aiming to teach the reader about key semantic concepts through straightforward definitions and clear examples.
This document provides an overview of conceptions of truth and evidence throughout the history of philosophy. It discusses ideas from ancient Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle, Roman thinkers like Cicero, medieval scholars, early modern philosophers like Descartes, and 20th century thinkers like Russell and Husserl. Key points discussed include ancient notions of evidence, medieval conceptions like intentiones, Descartes' view of clear and distinct perceptions, Brentano's intentionalism, Russell's view of evidence and axioms, and Husserl's phenomenology. The document examines different theories of truth and how notions of evidence, facts, correspondence, and uncoveredness relate to truth.
The document discusses several linguistic concepts including symbol, referent, euphemism, denotation, connotation, implication, ambiguity, metaphor, simile, synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, and homonym. It provides definitions and examples for each concept. For example, it states that a symbol is something used to represent another thing, while a referent is everything related to the symbol. It also gives examples of euphemisms used to soften truths, such as "passed away" instead of "died".
This document discusses deixis, which refers to the use of linguistic forms that point to contextual aspects like location, time, participants in an utterance. It defines deixis and provides examples of different types of deictic expressions, including personal pronouns, spatial/temporal adverbs, and demonstratives. The document also discusses concepts like proximal/distal deixis based on distance from the speaker, indexicals that symbolically point to states of affairs, and how deixis relies on context for interpretation of utterances. It provides examples demonstrating how deixis works and does not work without context.
It is my PPt about Semantics and Pragmatics; it only ver basic information about it, but hopefully it will be useful for your educational process or useful as your reading resources. You can contact me if you have a suggestion, critique, or maybe we can discuss this topic further.
Similar to Gottlob Frege's Sense and Reference (20)
This document provides a quiz on basic macroeconomics concepts related to measuring GDP/GNP, unemployment, and critiques of how these economic indicators are defined and measured. It includes questions asking to complete a table comparing ways to measure GDP/GNP, describe the effects of high unemployment on inflation and GDP/GNP through two scenarios, explain three problems with using GDP according to specific authors and assess if they apply in the Philippines, and critique how the labor force is measured in the Philippines according to other authors.
Napapaloob dito ang mga istratehiya o pamamaraan na pwedeng gamitin sa pagturo ng Araling Panlipunan. Kalakip din dito ang mga punto na kailangang pagnilay-nilayan ng mga mag-aaral upang mas mapaganda pa ang kanilang pamamaraan sa pagtuturo.
This document discusses social studies pedagogy in secondary schools. It defines pedagogy as the art, science, or profession of teaching. It outlines four themes of social studies pedagogy: research, reflection, learning, and leading. For research, students will analyze diverse perspectives in education to reflect on their own capacities and practices. For reflection, students will produce written essays and observations to develop their analytic skills. For learning, students will commit to life-long learning to equip themselves and their future students. For leading, students will serve as models of excellent pedagogical skills in their schools.
This is taken from the book "Introduction to Economics" by Marc Lieberman and Robert Hall (1999). This lesson covers: Why Study Economics?
The Method of Economics
The Basic Principles of Economics
This is a presentation of the basic concepts in introduction to economics. This lesson is based on the book "Introduction to Economics" by Marc Lieberman and Robert Hall (1999*. This covers economics, scarcity and choice; the world of economics: microeconomics and macroeconomics; and positive and normative economics.
The document provides an overview of the key differences between analytic and continental philosophy. It traces the origins of the split back to Kant's distinction between the noumenal and phenomenal realms. In response, Hegel rejected this distinction by arguing for an overarching Idea that unites all of reality. Meanwhile, the Vienna Circle rejected Kant's notion of synthetic a priori cognition and aimed to eliminate metaphysics, focusing instead on problems that could be solved through logic and empirical verification. These divergent responses to Kant helped establish the distinct methodologies of continental and analytic philosophy that continue today.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Physiology and chemistry of skin and pigmentation, hairs, scalp, lips and nail, Cleansing cream, Lotions, Face powders, Face packs, Lipsticks, Bath products, soaps and baby product,
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Assessment and Planning in Educational technology.pptxKavitha Krishnan
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A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
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Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
2. Frege’s puzzle:
“The Puzzle About Identity”
How can ‘a=a’ convey anything different
from ‘a=b’?
What treatment of identity statements
will explain the difference?
Frege’s two view of identity:
(1) Identity is a relation between objects
(2) Identity is a relation between names
(or signs) of objects
3. Frege favors #2 (identity is a relation
between names (or signs). Why?
E.g. :
‘a=a’ (Hesperus=Hesperus) known a priori
‘a=b’ (Hesperus=Phosphorus) cannot be
known a priori
The difference between two such statement is
a difference in their cognitive value. The
difference is unaccountable if identity is a
relation between objects since both
statements alike would only record the fact
that some thing is the same as itself.
It seems that something is learned from an
identity statement because it is learned
through the difference of the two names,
hence, what the statement really tells us
about is a relation between names.
4. Or isn’t the view of identity as a
relation between signs no better than
the view of it as a relation between
objects? Why?
If we take identity statements to speak merely
about names, then the cognitive difference
between the statements that Hesperus=Hesperus
and that Hesperus=Phosphorus would not be
apparent.
We do not wish to show just the difference of
names, but the meaning.
Any sign can be used and this could not convey
the sort of knowledge expressed in
Hesperus=Phosphorus.
5. ‘a=b’ is both informative and true
Informative: the difference
between ‘a’ and ‘b’ in respect
of how they present the
objects that they name—a
difference in their mode of
presentation; thus, a certain
object may be presented in
different ways according to
such a difference can explain
the difference in cognitive
value; ‘a’ and ‘b’ differ in
sense
True: ‘a=b’ where ‘a’ and ‘b’
6. The Problem having the informative
aspect solely: incorrect picture of the
whole
Blind men and the Elephant
7.
8. The Problem with looking at the
‘truth’ aspect solely: lack of depth
and richness of reality
“A bachelor is
unmarried.”
No new learning,
no other aspect
seen, no
richness in
perspective
9. Do you agree with Frege that ‘Hesperus is
Phoshorus’ conveys proper knowledge
which is not covered by saying that
the names ‘Hesperus’ and ‘Phosphorus’
refer to the same thing?
‘metalinguistic account’:
identity as a relation between
names
We talk about the Hesperus
not about the name Hesperus
when we say it is the same as
Phosphorus
Hesperus=Phosphorus is true
only if we talk about the same
thing and that the name refers
10. Sign: name, combination of words, letter
Reference: that to which the sign refers
Sense: the mode of presentation
“point of intersection of a
and b” and “the point of
intersection between b and
c”
>sign: different
>reference: the same
>sense: different
11. “Proper Name”
By ‘sign’ and ‘name’ : any designation
representing a proper name which thus has as its
reference a definite object
Can also consist of several words or other signs
For brevity, every such designation will be called
proper name
the sense of a proper name is grasped by
everybody who is sufficiently familiar with the
language or totality of designations to which it
belong
e.g. “Aristotle”
Senses: “the pupil of Plato”
“the teacher of Alexander the Great”
12. Regular connexion between a sign,
its sense and its reference
To the sign there
corresponds a definite
sense and to that in
turn a definite reference
(an object)
while to a given
reference (an object)
there does not belong
only a single sign
The same sense has
different expression in
different languages or
even in the same
13. Exception to this regular
connexion
1.To a sense, there may
not be a corresponding
reference:
e.g. “the celestial body
most distant from the
Earth”
“the least rapidly
convergent series”
2. “signs of signs”: when
words of another are
quoted
14. Frege vs. Locke
Reference/sense Idea
Reference is an object perceivable
by the senses
An internal image arising from the
memories of sense impressions
which I have had and acts, both
internal and external which I have
performed
Not saturated with feelings Saturated with feelings;
The clarity of its separate parts
remains the same
The clarity of its separate parts
varies and oscillates
Sign’s sense: common property of
many; not part of a mode of the
individual mind (mankind has a
common store of thoughts passed
from one generation to another)
Subjective: different persons will
have a variety of differences in the
idea associated with the same
sense
Two persons can grasp the same
sense.
Si duo idem faciunt, non est idem (If
two persons picture the same thing,
each still has its own idea.)
15. Frege’s analogy of sense vs. idea:
“observing the Moon through a telescope”
Reference: Moon
Sense: real image projected by
the object glass in the interior of
the telescope (optimal image is
dependent upon the standpoint
of the observation but it is still
objective)
Idea or experience: the retinal
image of the observer (diverse
shapes of the observer’s eyes
will cause his own retinal
image)
16. 3 levels of difference between
words/expression or sentences:
1. Difference in ideas (different persons will have
different ideas given a particular word; will also
cover “coloring and shading”)
2. Difference in sense but not reference
3. Difference in reference
Conclusion:
A proper name (word, sign, sign combination,
expression) expresses its sense, stands for or
designates its reference. By means of a sign
we express its sense and designate its
reference.
17. Assignment:
1. Compare and Contrast Mill and
Frege’s treatment of Proper Names
2. Read Wittgenstein’s Philosophical
Investigations
Mill Frege