GHG emissions from intensive agriculture in India are significant. The intensive agriculture model relies on heavy use of external inputs like chemical fertilizers and is linear rather than cyclical. Chemical fertilizer production and use, including urea, accounts for nearly 100 million tons of CO2-eq emissions annually in India or around 6% of total emissions. Methane emissions from rice cultivation, livestock, and large dams also contribute substantially to India's GHG emissions. Burning of rice and wheat straw releases millions of tons of pollutants and lost nutrients annually. Climate change will negatively impact agriculture through rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and more frequent extreme weather. Sustainable agricultural models that are less input-intensive and align more with natural

1. GHG emissions in an intensive
agriculture scenario
Ramanjaneyulu
Centre for Sustainable Agriculture

2. Intensive Agriculture
• is highly LINEAR, whereas traditionally agriculture was highly
CYCLICAL.
• is based on maximizing the output of a narrow range of
species leading to monoculture of crops and varieties
• is based on capital depletion and massive additions of
external inputs (e.g. energy, water, chemicals)
• views the farm as a factory with “inputs” (such as pesticides,
feed, fertilizer, and fuel) and “outputs” (grain, cotton,
chicken, and so forth)
• never cared about the externalities
After Ecological, Socio-political and Economic Crisis
we are landing up in Climate Change

3. The Greenhouse Effect

4. Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)
• Carbon Dioxide (CO2): fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), solid waste,
trees and wood products, and also as a result of other chemical reactions
(e.g., manufacture of cement).
• Methane (CH4): production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil;
livestock and other agricultural practices and by the decay of organic waste
in municipal solid waste landfills.
• Nitrous Oxide (N2O): agricultural and industrial activities, as well as
during combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste.
• Fluorinated Gases: (Hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur
hexafluoride): synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases from a variety of
industrial processes.
– Sometimes used as substitutes for ozone-depleting substances (i.e., CFCs, HCFCs,
and halons). Typically emitted in smaller quantities, but because they are potent
GHGs, they are sometimes referred to as High Global Warming Potential gases
(“High GWP gases”).
Sources: U.S. EPA, IPCC 3rd
assessment

5. Global Warming Potential
• measure of the ability of a gas in the atmosphere to trap heat
radiated from the earth’s surface compared to a reference gas,
which is usually assumed to be carbon dioxide
• Usually, a time horizon of 100 years is used
– carbon dioxide (CO2)= 1;
– methane (CH4)= 21;
– nitrous oxide (N20) = 310;
– sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) = 23,900;
– tetrafluoromethane (CF4)= 6500;
– hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs): HFC-134a = 1300;
– chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): CFC-114 = 9300;
– hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs): HCFC-22 = 1700
IPCC, 2007

6. Role of agricultural activity in emission of
GHGs (Unit : Million tone Co2-eq)

7. GHG emissions from India
• 64% of India’s population
depends on Agriculture
• Contribution of Agriculture to
GDP ~ 18%.
• GHG Emissions from Agriculture
sector – 344 million t CO2e/year
• Agriculture – second largest
contributor of GHGs
Source: India’s first national communication to UN

8. CH4 and N2O emissions
One of the largest contributor of CH4 and N2O

9. Emissions from Fertilizer manufacturing
• Chemical fertilisers consume 1.2% of the world's energy
• Responsible for approximately 1.2% of the total emission
of the Greenhouse gases in the world consisting of 0.3%
of pure CO, 0.3% as N2O and 0.6% as flue gas CO
• Feed stock to produce N fertilizers in India (2006-07)
– Natural gas-62 %
– Naptha-15 %
– Ammonia (ext. supply)-13 %
– Fuel oil-9 %
– Others-1 %
• Fertilizer industry uses 25 % of Natural Gas, 18 % of
Naptha and 14 % of Fuel Oil
• IPCC 2007 methodology
• Urea = 4.02 kg CO2-eq per kg N
• Ammonium phosphate = 6.39 kg CO2-eq per kg N
• In India emissions in 2006/07 was ~ 50 mt CO2- eq
• This amounts to 3 percent of the country global net emissions

10. N20 emissions from fields
• IPCC methodology 2007
• 1.25 kg of N2O emitted per 100
kg of Nitrogen applied
• Globally, an average 50% of the nitrogen
used in farming is lost to the
environment:
• as N2O to the air as a potent GHG
(310 x CO2)
• as nitrate polluting wells, rivers,
and oceans
• Volatilization loss 25-33 %
• Leaching loss 20-30 %
• Emissions from fertiliser application
in 2006/07 totaled 51 mt CO2-eq
The global greenhouse gas emissions from fertiliser manufacture and use in India
reached nearly 100 million tonnes of CO2-eq in 2006/07,
which represents about 6 percent of total Indian greenhouse gas emissions

11. In addition…
• Factor productivity of Chemical fertilisers come down
• The leached nutrients pollute the groundwater and
river waters cleaning up needs high energy
• In AP 30 % of soil are reported to be saline
• Shift in crop varieties can result in high nutrient use
– GM cotton needs 50 % more fertilizer-ANGRAU
– 6 % increase in GE crops doubles the fertiliser consumption
(Dr. CD Mayee)
– Recent study from IARI (Sarkar. et.al,2008*) says Bt cotton
may constrain N availability and reduce soil microbial activity
* J. Agronomy & Crop Science (2008)

12. Consumption and production of fertilizers in India
In 2006/07, consumption reached 21 mt of nutrients, a 9-fold increased since 1970
India consumption of nitrogen the second highest in the world, after China
Nitrogen represents 63 percent of total nutrients, with nearly 14 mt of nitrogen
consumed in 2006
Urea:
81 % of the
nitrogen fertiliser
consumed
Courtesy: Reyes Tirado, Greenpeace

13. Ever-growing…
Years 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09
Fertiliser Subsidy 18299 25952 40338
119772*
(estimated)
Years 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09
Fertiliser Subsidy 18299 25952 40338 119772* (estimated)
*Source : Department of Fertilisers, Min of Chemicals and Fertilizers, Govt of India
The New Indian Express, July 8, 2008

14. Trends in Economics of Fertilizer
inputs on Rice Production in India
(1971-2002)

15. In factory In roots
Nitrate production

16. Straw Burning in Punjab
• Wheat crop residue 5500 Sq km and
Rice crop residues 12685 Sq km
• every 4 tons of rice or wheat grain,
about 6 tons of straw is produced
• One tonne straw on burning releases 3
kg particulate matter, 60 kg, CO, 1460
kg CO2, 199 kg ash and 2 kg SO2
• 40–80% of the wheat crop residue N is
lost as ammonia when burned
• About 32–76% of the straw weight and
27–73% N are lost in burning
• 25% of N and P, 50% of S and 75% of K
uptake by cereal crops are retained in
crop residues
• Emission Factors (EFs) for wheat residue
burning as estimated CO- 34.66g/Kg ,
NOx – 2.63g/Kg, CH4 – 0.41g/Km ,
PM10 – 3.99g/Kg, PM2.5 – 3.76g/Kg .

17. Straw Burning
• Heat from burning straw penetrate into the soil
up to 1 cm, elevating the temperature as high as
33.8–42.2°C
• Bacterial and fungal populations are decreased
immediately and substantially only in the top 2.5
cm of the soil upon burning
• Repeated burning in the field permanently
diminishes the bacterial population by more
than 50%
• Burning immediately increased the
exchangeable NH4 + –N and bicarbonate
extractable phosphorus content, but there was
no build-up of nutrients in the profile
• Long-term burning reduces total N and C and
potentially mineralized N in the 0–15 cm soil
layer
• One of the recognized threats to the RWS
sustainability is the loss of soil organic matter as
a result of burning

18. Comparison of All India Emissions from Rice and
Wheat residue open burning in 1994 and 2000 (Gg)
Year CH4 CO N20 NOx
1994 102 2138 2.2 78
2000 110 2305 2.3 84
Gupta, P. K. et al., Residue burning in rice– wheat cropping system: Causes and
implications. Curr. Sci., 2004, 87, 1713– 1715.
Brown cloud formed on October 12, 2002

19. Burning Nutrients
• 19.6 million tonnes of
straw every year (rice and
wheat), worth crores of
rupees and losing
– 38.5 lakh tonnes of organic
carbon
– 59,000 tonnes of nitrogen
– 2,000 tonnes of
phosphorous
– 34,000 tonnes of potassium
every year

20. Burning Straw is Burning Subsidies
• Total Fertilizer use in Punjab is
• 184 kg/ha use is highest in the country (Nitrogen
alone accounts for 139.6 is kg/ha)
• Punjab is also asking for additional 25 % subsidy on
diesel
Burnt nutrients
Fertilizer
equivalents
quantity
(tonnes)
Total subsidy
(Rs. Crore)
Farmers' cost
(Rs. Crore)
59000 tonnes of
Nitrogen
Urea
(naptha based) 128261 384.78 64.34
DAP 327778 1329.04 318.73
2000 tonees of
Phosphorus DAP 4348 17.63 4.23
SSP 12500 7.00 4.42
34000 tonnes of Potash MoP 56667 106.32 26.25

21. Breaking the natural cycles

22. Paddy cultivation in India
• Out of a total area of 99.5 Mha
under cereal cultivation, 42.3
Mha or 42.5% is under rice
cultivation
• It is grown under flooded
conditions and the seedbed
preparation involves puddling
or plowing when the soil is wet
to destroy aggregates and
reduce the infiltration rate of
water

23. Rice and GHGs
• Anaerobic conditions lead to
emission of methane (CH4) and
possibly nitrous oxide (N20)
through inefficient fertilizer use.
• Emission of CH4 from rice
paddies in India is estimated at
2.4 to 6 Tg out of the world
total emission of 25.4 to 54 Tg
from all sources and 16 to 34 Tg
from rice cultivation.
• The average CH4 flux from rice
paddies ranges from 9 to 46
g/m2 over a 120 to 150 day
growing season
Tg (teragram= 1× 1012 g= 1 million metric tons or MMT)

24. Large dams contribute 18.7 % emissions
• Total methane emissions from
India's large dams could be 33.5
million tonnes (MT) per annum,
including emissions from
reservoirs (1.1 MT), spillways
(13.2 MT) and turbines of
hydropower dams (19.2 MT)
• Total emission of methane likely
to be around 17 MT per annum
equivalent to 425 CO2 equivalent
MT. This, when compared to
India's official emission of 1849
CO2e MT in year 2000 (which
does not include emission from
large dams) it is 18.7 %
Ivan B.T. Lima et al. (2007) "Methane Emissions from Large Dams as Renewable
Energy Resources: A Developing Nation Perspective,"Mitigation and Adaptation
Strategies for Global Change, published on-line March 2007

25. Lift Irrigation Schemes in AP
Today 3,000 mega watts power is supplied freely to agriculture for 29 lakh pump sets
• By 2012 AP needs 12,682 Megawatt power
• 47 lakh ha would be brought under irrigation
• Seven and half horse power motor will be used for
every 10 acres and five lakh such motors have to be
installed in the next four years
• Needs 37.5 lakh HP electricity (2775 mega watt)
• Major lift irrigation schemes needs 6407 mega watt
• Minor lift irrigation schemes needs 500 mega watt
• to produce and supply one mega watt power
• Rs. 4 cr to create infrastructure to produce
• Rs. 4.5 cr for transmission and distribution

26. Livestock
• Livestock’s contribute to GHG emissions is 9.0
Tg methane and 1 Gg nitrous oxide for the
year 1997, and in terms of CO equivalent it is
around 190 Tg
• Shift to stall fed sytem create problems with
the dung
• Shift from fodder to feed, concentrates carries
higher ecological foot prints

27. The poorest people are likely to be hardest hit by the
impacts of climate variability and change because they:
Rely heavily on climate-sensitive sectors such as rainfed
agriculture and fisheries.
Tend to be located geographically in more exposed or
marginal areas, such as flood plains or on nutrient-poor soils
Are less able to respond due to limited human, institutional
and financial capacity.
Have very limited ability to cope with climate impacts, and to
adapt to a changing hazard burden. Despite significant
progress in recent years, over 300 million people live in
extreme poverty in India, earning less that US$1 per day, and
500 million earn less than US$2 per day.
India: climate and development context

28. India: sensitive to changes in climate in future
Observed climate (1961-90) Projected climate (2040-2060)

29. Climate Change Scenarios for India
Year Season Increase in
Temperature,
o
C
Change in
Rainfall, %
Lowest Highest Lowest Highest
Rabi 1.08 1.54 -1.95 4.362020s
Kharif 0.87 1.12 1.81 5.10
Rabi 2.54 3.18 -9.22 3.822050s
Kharif 1.81 2.37 7.18 10.52
Rabi 4.14 6.31 -24.83 -4.502080s
Kharif 2.91 4.62 10.10 15.18
Source: Lal et al., 2001

30. Yield: Reduction in rabi crops, increase in soybean, CO2
Fertilization effect, C3 Plants may be benefitted,
Water Availability: Increase in frequency of flood and drought,
delayed summer monsoon, lowering of ground
water, higher monsoon rains, lower rabi rains
Soil Processes: organic carbon Loss, soil water content,
runoff erosion, workability, temperature, Salinization,
biodiversity, and organic carbon and nitrogen content,
lowering of ground water
Quality of Crop: Low N and protein content, more amylase but
less Zn and Fe in Paddy, reproductive animal health at
risk
Pest Incidence and Virulence: more life cycles of insects,
lessening of latent period of fungi
Overall Change in Farm Ecology: e.g. Bird-insect relations
Sea level rise : salinity ingression, submergence
Direct and Indirect effects of climate change on Agriculture

31. A family used to farm 85 acres on the vanished
island of Lochachara. Now they have one acre in a
village for displaced people on a nearby island,
which itself is under threat from the waves.
Professor Sugata Hazra

32. Aligning with natural cycles

33. Sustainable Agriculture-nested

34. Business as usual is not the option!
Therefore…
• Move towards more ecological farming
models which are sustainable
• Shift to internalized input based production
systems
• Shift to low water consuming, location specific
cropping patterns
• Shift to locally adapted crop varieties and
agro-diversity based cropping systems