This document discusses the interactions between agriculture and the environment in India. It notes that agricultural productivity has greatly increased since the Green Revolution through high-yielding varieties, irrigation, and increased chemical use. However, this has also led to various environmental issues. Climate change is causing rising temperatures, uncertain rainfall patterns, and more extreme weather. Agricultural activities like rice cultivation, livestock, and fertilizer use contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions. Water resources are being polluted by industrial and agricultural runoff containing chemicals, sediments, and fertilizers. Soil quality is declining due to loss of organic matter, erosion, nutrient imbalances, compaction, salinization, and contamination from pesticides. These environmental changes and degradation are negatively impacting agricultural
The world is running short of time and option at social and economic front in view of high risks related with global warming and climate change, which is a result of the “enhanced greenhouse effect” mainly due to human induced release of greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere (IPCC, 2007). The GHGs inventories are going on all over the world and every possible method to control them are being recognized and evaluated. Carbon footprint is a measure of the exclusive total amount of carbon dioxide emissions that is directly and indirectly caused by an activity or is accumulated over the life stages of a product (Pandey et al., 2011). The crop production contributes significantly to global carbon emissions at different stage of crop through the production and use of farm machinery, crop protection chemicals such as herbicides, insecticides and fungicides, and fertilizer (Hillier et al., 2012). Pathak et al.(2010) calculated the carbon footprint of 24 Indian food items and reported that in the production of these food item 87% emission came from food production followed by preparation (10%), processing (2%) and transportation (1%). Maheswarappa et al. (2011) reported that the C-sustainability index (increase in C output as % of C-based input) of Indian agriculture has decreased with time (from 7 in 1960-61 to 3 in 2008-9). Agricultural uses, including both food production and consumption, contribute the most reactive nitrogen (Nr) to the global environment. Once lost to the environment, the nitrogen moves through the Earth’s atmosphere, forests, grasslands and waters causing a cascade of environmental changes that negatively impact both people and ecosystems. Leach et al. (2012) developed a tool called N-Calculator, a nitrogen footprint model that provides information on how to reduce Nr to the environment. Therefore, Quantification of GHGs from each stage of lifecycle of a product gives complete picture of its impact on global warming and provides necessary information to develop low C technology and mitigation option not only for industrial product but also for agricultural produce. The C and N footprint for a given field will allow growers, advisors and policy makers to make informed decisions about management to optimize crop production, biodiversity and carbon footprint.
Heavy Metal Contamination in Soil of Industrial Area, Dewas, Madhya Pradesh, ...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
A study has been conducted to assess the heavy metal contamination in soil of Dewas industrial area of Madhya Pradesh, India. Total eight locations and one control location were selected in Dewas industrial area for soil quality monitoring w.r.t. heavy metals. The nine soil samples were monitored for heavy metals such as Chromium (Cr), Manganese(Mn), Nickel (Ni), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe), Cadmium (Cd), Lead (Pb) and Cobalt (Co) analysis during different four quarters from April 2019 to March 2020. The heavy metal contamination with w.r.t. Contamination Index (CI), Pollution Load Index (PLI) study in selected locations in Dewas industrial area has been done. Over all Pollution Load Index of soil was found greater than 1 which shows polluted soil w.r.t. heavy metals at all selected monitoring locations in Dewas industrial area of Madhya Pradesh, India during this study.
Climate Smart Agriculture and Soil-Carbon SequestrationSIANI
Part of the Swedish seminar "Från kolkälla till kolfälla: Om framtidens klimatsmarta jordbruk"
8th May 2012, 13.00 - 16.30
Kulturhuset, Stockholm
Marja-Liisa Tapio-Biström, FAO, gives a global overview of carbon in soil.
Professor Peter Grace says carbon rich soil is "your superannuation", it's not about carbon credits, it's about productivity. He sketches the potential for rangelands to sequester carbon.
NOTE: The presentation and data therein is for information only and can only be reproduced with permission of the author.
Environmental Education is important among schools to help students develop awareness, concern and knowledge of the environment and. In addition, it helps them learn how to use this understanding to preserve, conserve and utilize the environment in a sustainable manner for the benefit of present and future generations.
The world is running short of time and option at social and economic front in view of high risks related with global warming and climate change, which is a result of the “enhanced greenhouse effect” mainly due to human induced release of greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere (IPCC, 2007). The GHGs inventories are going on all over the world and every possible method to control them are being recognized and evaluated. Carbon footprint is a measure of the exclusive total amount of carbon dioxide emissions that is directly and indirectly caused by an activity or is accumulated over the life stages of a product (Pandey et al., 2011). The crop production contributes significantly to global carbon emissions at different stage of crop through the production and use of farm machinery, crop protection chemicals such as herbicides, insecticides and fungicides, and fertilizer (Hillier et al., 2012). Pathak et al.(2010) calculated the carbon footprint of 24 Indian food items and reported that in the production of these food item 87% emission came from food production followed by preparation (10%), processing (2%) and transportation (1%). Maheswarappa et al. (2011) reported that the C-sustainability index (increase in C output as % of C-based input) of Indian agriculture has decreased with time (from 7 in 1960-61 to 3 in 2008-9). Agricultural uses, including both food production and consumption, contribute the most reactive nitrogen (Nr) to the global environment. Once lost to the environment, the nitrogen moves through the Earth’s atmosphere, forests, grasslands and waters causing a cascade of environmental changes that negatively impact both people and ecosystems. Leach et al. (2012) developed a tool called N-Calculator, a nitrogen footprint model that provides information on how to reduce Nr to the environment. Therefore, Quantification of GHGs from each stage of lifecycle of a product gives complete picture of its impact on global warming and provides necessary information to develop low C technology and mitigation option not only for industrial product but also for agricultural produce. The C and N footprint for a given field will allow growers, advisors and policy makers to make informed decisions about management to optimize crop production, biodiversity and carbon footprint.
Heavy Metal Contamination in Soil of Industrial Area, Dewas, Madhya Pradesh, ...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
A study has been conducted to assess the heavy metal contamination in soil of Dewas industrial area of Madhya Pradesh, India. Total eight locations and one control location were selected in Dewas industrial area for soil quality monitoring w.r.t. heavy metals. The nine soil samples were monitored for heavy metals such as Chromium (Cr), Manganese(Mn), Nickel (Ni), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe), Cadmium (Cd), Lead (Pb) and Cobalt (Co) analysis during different four quarters from April 2019 to March 2020. The heavy metal contamination with w.r.t. Contamination Index (CI), Pollution Load Index (PLI) study in selected locations in Dewas industrial area has been done. Over all Pollution Load Index of soil was found greater than 1 which shows polluted soil w.r.t. heavy metals at all selected monitoring locations in Dewas industrial area of Madhya Pradesh, India during this study.
Climate Smart Agriculture and Soil-Carbon SequestrationSIANI
Part of the Swedish seminar "Från kolkälla till kolfälla: Om framtidens klimatsmarta jordbruk"
8th May 2012, 13.00 - 16.30
Kulturhuset, Stockholm
Marja-Liisa Tapio-Biström, FAO, gives a global overview of carbon in soil.
Professor Peter Grace says carbon rich soil is "your superannuation", it's not about carbon credits, it's about productivity. He sketches the potential for rangelands to sequester carbon.
NOTE: The presentation and data therein is for information only and can only be reproduced with permission of the author.
Environmental Education is important among schools to help students develop awareness, concern and knowledge of the environment and. In addition, it helps them learn how to use this understanding to preserve, conserve and utilize the environment in a sustainable manner for the benefit of present and future generations.
Abstract— Anaerobic decomposition of organic material in flooded rice paddy fields produces methane and is considered one of the most prevalent sources for atmospheric methane. Methane from the rice paddy fields escapes to the atmosphere primarily by diffusive transport through the rice plants during the growing season. This paper aimed at the inventarisation of greenhouse gas emissions from the flooded rice paddy fields using Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2006 guidelines - Tier 1 approach for Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land-use sector. The methane emission from rice paddy fields for the year 1990-1991 was 1.255 Gg or 31.364GgCO2e, while 2012-2013 accounts for 0.269Gg or 6.725GgCO2e. The overall decrease of 21.44% of methane emissions from rice paddy fields was observed during the last two and half decade. The rice paddy fields are decreased over the years due to rapid expansion of the built-up environment in the outskirts of the urban area.
Soil Carbon Sequestration Potential of Mangroves at Katunggan it IbajayASU-CHARRM
The Katunggan it Ibajay (KII) Eco Park is home to one of the most diverse mangrove forests in the Philippines. It is a 44.22 hectares protected park in the town of Ibajay in Aklan which boasts a total of 28 true species of mangroves or 80 percent out of the total 35 Philippine mangrove species. The forest is also a home to some species of birds and other wildlife like mud lobsters, fiddler crabs, mudskippers and other fauna. Recent studies have been conducted in the area which includes the identification of mollusk species, behaviours and activities of fiddler crabs. However, there is a lack of information on studies regarding Carbon storage and sequestration potential of mangrove species in KII.
Therefore, considering the vital role of mangrove species there is a need to conduct this study to provide a wide array of information about the total C-stock and sequestration potential of selected mangrove species in KII. Likewise, it will help local folks, LGU-officials and future researchers to increase their awareness to protect and preserve KII Eco-Park; to help reduce increasing negative impact of global warming in the environment.
Impact of soil properties on carbon sequestrationyoginimahadule
Carbon sequestration is an important global phenomenon that plays a significant role in maintaining a balanced global carbon cycle and sustainable crop production. Carbon Sequestration is the placement of CO2 into a depository in such way that it remains safely and not released back to the atmosphere.
Among the soil factors, texture plays an important role in C sequestration. The observation that the decrease in clay- and silt associated C and N upon cultivation of soils was generally less than the decrease in C and N in the particle size fraction > 20 µm confirms that clay and sift particles protect C against microbial degradation (Hassink, 1997).
Increase in SOC concentration with conservation tillage was partly responsible for the increased macroaggregation near the soil surface.( Zhang et al. 2013)
Electrical conductivity in soils affects the organic carbon content by reducing the uptake of minerals and water by the plant which ultimately results in less plant growth. A higher electrical conductivity causes less decomposition in soils which consequently reduces the accumulation of humus meanwhile, the values of acidity; percentage of organic matter, organic carbon and the sequestration of carbon in soils containing T. kotschyiwas more than the values observed in soils containing T. aphylla and the soil of the control which contained no plants.
Nitrogen applicaton at optimum rate help to sequester carbon in soil.(Jiang et al. 2019). Integrated nutrient application in long-term rice-wheat cropping system would be a suitable option with respect to its potentiality of increasing yield, nutrient availability, and sequestering soil organic carbon for sustainable soil health management in partially reclaimed sodic soils of the north Indian subcontinent. He concluded that FYM application increase passive pool of soil while green manure increase active and labile pool. (Choudhury et al. 2018)
Six et al. (2006) by various observation of different sites concludes changes in the relative abundance and activity of bacteria and fungi may significantly affect C cycling and storage, due to the unique physiologies and differential interactions with soil physical properties of these two microbial groups. It has been hypothesized that C turnover is slower in fungal-dominated communities in part because fungi in corporate more soil C into biomass than bacteria and because fungal cell walls are more recalcitrant than bacterial cell walls. Same result by Aliasgharzad et al. 2016).
Tsai et al. (2013) showed positive correlation of soil organic carbon with elevation
Riccardo Valentini, premio Nobel Pace 2007 – Protocollo Milano, al 33° Conveg...APAB
Riccardo Valentini, premio Nobel Pace 2007 – Protocollo Milano, relaziona portando i saluti e il contributo di Protocollo di Milano al 33° Convegno Internazionale di Agricoltura Biodinamica il 20 febbraio 2015 all'Università Bocconi di MIlano.
Abstract— Anaerobic decomposition of organic material in flooded rice paddy fields produces methane and is considered one of the most prevalent sources for atmospheric methane. Methane from the rice paddy fields escapes to the atmosphere primarily by diffusive transport through the rice plants during the growing season. This paper aimed at the inventarisation of greenhouse gas emissions from the flooded rice paddy fields using Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2006 guidelines - Tier 1 approach for Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land-use sector. The methane emission from rice paddy fields for the year 1990-1991 was 1.255 Gg or 31.364GgCO2e, while 2012-2013 accounts for 0.269Gg or 6.725GgCO2e. The overall decrease of 21.44% of methane emissions from rice paddy fields was observed during the last two and half decade. The rice paddy fields are decreased over the years due to rapid expansion of the built-up environment in the outskirts of the urban area.
Soil Carbon Sequestration Potential of Mangroves at Katunggan it IbajayASU-CHARRM
The Katunggan it Ibajay (KII) Eco Park is home to one of the most diverse mangrove forests in the Philippines. It is a 44.22 hectares protected park in the town of Ibajay in Aklan which boasts a total of 28 true species of mangroves or 80 percent out of the total 35 Philippine mangrove species. The forest is also a home to some species of birds and other wildlife like mud lobsters, fiddler crabs, mudskippers and other fauna. Recent studies have been conducted in the area which includes the identification of mollusk species, behaviours and activities of fiddler crabs. However, there is a lack of information on studies regarding Carbon storage and sequestration potential of mangrove species in KII.
Therefore, considering the vital role of mangrove species there is a need to conduct this study to provide a wide array of information about the total C-stock and sequestration potential of selected mangrove species in KII. Likewise, it will help local folks, LGU-officials and future researchers to increase their awareness to protect and preserve KII Eco-Park; to help reduce increasing negative impact of global warming in the environment.
Impact of soil properties on carbon sequestrationyoginimahadule
Carbon sequestration is an important global phenomenon that plays a significant role in maintaining a balanced global carbon cycle and sustainable crop production. Carbon Sequestration is the placement of CO2 into a depository in such way that it remains safely and not released back to the atmosphere.
Among the soil factors, texture plays an important role in C sequestration. The observation that the decrease in clay- and silt associated C and N upon cultivation of soils was generally less than the decrease in C and N in the particle size fraction > 20 µm confirms that clay and sift particles protect C against microbial degradation (Hassink, 1997).
Increase in SOC concentration with conservation tillage was partly responsible for the increased macroaggregation near the soil surface.( Zhang et al. 2013)
Electrical conductivity in soils affects the organic carbon content by reducing the uptake of minerals and water by the plant which ultimately results in less plant growth. A higher electrical conductivity causes less decomposition in soils which consequently reduces the accumulation of humus meanwhile, the values of acidity; percentage of organic matter, organic carbon and the sequestration of carbon in soils containing T. kotschyiwas more than the values observed in soils containing T. aphylla and the soil of the control which contained no plants.
Nitrogen applicaton at optimum rate help to sequester carbon in soil.(Jiang et al. 2019). Integrated nutrient application in long-term rice-wheat cropping system would be a suitable option with respect to its potentiality of increasing yield, nutrient availability, and sequestering soil organic carbon for sustainable soil health management in partially reclaimed sodic soils of the north Indian subcontinent. He concluded that FYM application increase passive pool of soil while green manure increase active and labile pool. (Choudhury et al. 2018)
Six et al. (2006) by various observation of different sites concludes changes in the relative abundance and activity of bacteria and fungi may significantly affect C cycling and storage, due to the unique physiologies and differential interactions with soil physical properties of these two microbial groups. It has been hypothesized that C turnover is slower in fungal-dominated communities in part because fungi in corporate more soil C into biomass than bacteria and because fungal cell walls are more recalcitrant than bacterial cell walls. Same result by Aliasgharzad et al. 2016).
Tsai et al. (2013) showed positive correlation of soil organic carbon with elevation
Riccardo Valentini, premio Nobel Pace 2007 – Protocollo Milano, al 33° Conveg...APAB
Riccardo Valentini, premio Nobel Pace 2007 – Protocollo Milano, relaziona portando i saluti e il contributo di Protocollo di Milano al 33° Convegno Internazionale di Agricoltura Biodinamica il 20 febbraio 2015 all'Università Bocconi di MIlano.
soil organic carbon- a key for sustainable soil quality under scenario of cli...Bornali Borah
The global soil resource is already showing a sign of serious degradation (Banwart et al. 2014) which has ultimately negative impact on sustained crop yield and environmental quality. Due to intense rainfall and concurrent rise in temperature with changing climate, the fertile top soil is prone to severe degradation with depletion of SOC. Most soils in agricultural ecosystems have lost soil C ranging from 30 to 60 t C ha-1 with the magnitude of 50 to 75% loss (Lal, 2004). Hence, restoration of soil quality through different carbon management options will enhance soil health, mitigate climate change and provide sustained agricultural production.
Climate change impacts on soil health and their mitigation and adaptation str...Rajendra meena
The increasing concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) is bringing about major changes to the global environment resulting in global warming, depletion of ozone concentration in the stratosphere, changes in atmospheric moisture and precipitation and enhanced atmospheric deposition. These changes impact several soil processes, which are influence soil health. Soil health refers to the capacity of soil to perform agronomic and environmental functions. A number of physical, chemical and biological characteristics have been proposed as indicators of soil health. Generally, biological processes in soil such as decomposition and storage of organic matter, C and N cycling, microbial and metabolic quotients are likely to be influenced greatly by climate change and have thus high relevance to assess climate change impacts (Allen et al., 2011). Soil organic matter (SOM) exerts a major influence on several soil health indicators and is thus considered a key indicator of soil health. An optimal level of SOM is essential for maintaining soil health and alleviating rising atmospheric CO2 concentration. Elevated CO2 has increased C decay rates generally but in some cases elevated CO2 increases soil C storage (Jastrow et al., 2016). Enhancing the soil organic carbon pool also improves agro-ecosystem resilience, eco-efficiency, and adaptation to climate change. Healthy soils provide the largest store of terrestrial carbon, when managed sustainably; soils can play an important role in climate change mitigation by storing carbon (carbon sequestration) and decreasing greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere (Paustian et al., 2016).
Wright et al., (2005) reported that no tillage increase soil organic carbon (SOC) and nitrogen (SON) 11 and 21% in corn and 22 and 12 % in cotton than conventional tillage. Agroforestry system at farmers’ field enhance soil biological activity and amongst trees, P. cineraria based system brought maximum and significant improvement in soil biological activity (Yadav et al ., 2011).
Challenges of soil organic carbon sequestration in drylandsExternalEvents
This presentation was presented during the 1 Parallel session on Theme 3.3, Managing SOC in: Dryland soils, of the Global Symposium on Soil Organic Carbon that took place in Rome 21-23 March 2017. The presentation was made by Mr. Rachid Mrabet , from INRA – Morocco, in FAO Hq, Rome
How to defend the environment of the impacts caused by the production and inf...Fernando Alcoforado
In World Environment Week, with this article, I offer my contribution in the sense of defending it from the impacts caused by human activities. This article aims to show how to mitigate the environmental impacts of the agricultural, industrial and oil sectors, of the thermoelectric, hydroelectric and nuclear power plants, of the road, rail, air, waterway, maritime and duct transportation sectors and of the cities.
Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intellige...University of Maribor
Slides from talk:
Aleš Zamuda: Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intelligent Systems.
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
The Evolution of Science Education PraxiLabs’ Vision- Presentation (2).pdfmediapraxi
The rise of virtual labs has been a key tool in universities and schools, enhancing active learning and student engagement.
💥 Let’s dive into the future of science and shed light on PraxiLabs’ crucial role in transforming this field!
BREEDING METHODS FOR DISEASE RESISTANCE.pptxRASHMI M G
Plant breeding for disease resistance is a strategy to reduce crop losses caused by disease. Plants have an innate immune system that allows them to recognize pathogens and provide resistance. However, breeding for long-lasting resistance often involves combining multiple resistance genes
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
hematic appreciation test is a psychological assessment tool used to measure an individual's appreciation and understanding of specific themes or topics. This test helps to evaluate an individual's ability to connect different ideas and concepts within a given theme, as well as their overall comprehension and interpretation skills. The results of the test can provide valuable insights into an individual's cognitive abilities, creativity, and critical thinking skills
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
Travis Hills' Endeavors in Minnesota: Fostering Environmental and Economic Pr...Travis Hills MN
Travis Hills of Minnesota developed a method to convert waste into high-value dry fertilizer, significantly enriching soil quality. By providing farmers with a valuable resource derived from waste, Travis Hills helps enhance farm profitability while promoting environmental stewardship. Travis Hills' sustainable practices lead to cost savings and increased revenue for farmers by improving resource efficiency and reducing waste.
Nucleophilic Addition of carbonyl compounds.pptxSSR02
Nucleophilic addition is the most important reaction of carbonyls. Not just aldehydes and ketones, but also carboxylic acid derivatives in general.
Carbonyls undergo addition reactions with a large range of nucleophiles.
Comparing the relative basicity of the nucleophile and the product is extremely helpful in determining how reversible the addition reaction is. Reactions with Grignards and hydrides are irreversible. Reactions with weak bases like halides and carboxylates generally don’t happen.
Electronic effects (inductive effects, electron donation) have a large impact on reactivity.
Large groups adjacent to the carbonyl will slow the rate of reaction.
Neutral nucleophiles can also add to carbonyls, although their additions are generally slower and more reversible. Acid catalysis is sometimes employed to increase the rate of addition.
3. Introduction
Agriculture and Environment
Food production in India has increased from 69 million tonnes in 1965 to 264.4 million
tonnes in 2013 – 14, cereals productivity has increased from almost 10 to 30 q ha-1.
If the yield improvement would not have taken place, we would at present have required
another 70 million hectares land to produce the food grains to meet our requirements. Since
land is finite, this additional land would have come from deforestation.
The most imminent of the environmental changes of the earth is the increase in the
atmospheric temperature due to increased levels of CO2 and other GHGs.
The quantity of rainfall and its occurrence has also become more uncertain. In certain
places, climatic extremes such as drought, floods, rainfall distributions and snowmelt have
increased.
The sea level has risen by 10 – 20 cm depending upon the region. Similarly, snow cover is
also believed to be gradually decreasing.
The global mean annual temperature at the end of the 20th century was almost 0.5 to 0.7° C
above that recorded at the end of the 19th century. It is projected that the average temperature
of the air would rise by 1.9 to 4.6° C over the next 100 years.
Natural calamities viz. more floods, frequent droughts and forest fires, decrease in
agricultural and aquacultural productivity, displacement of coastal dwellers by sea level rise
and intense tropical cyclones, and the degradation of mangroves are projected to be some of
the likely consequences of such environmental changes in Asia. 3
5. Father of the Global Green Revolution
Agriculture and Environment5
Nobel laureate Dr. Norman Ernst Borlaug
6. Father of Green Revolution in India
Dr. M. S. Swaminathan
Agriculture and Environment6
7. 1. High yielding varieties
Agriculture and Environment7
2. Irrigation facilities 3. Chemical use
Major reasons of green revolution
8. To identify existing and emerging constraints limiting productivity
and opportunity for sustainable increase in the future, It is important to
understand agriculture-environment interactions in totality. This would
include identification of the key environmental problems from an agricultural
perspective, impact of these on agriculture, impact agricultural activities on
the environment, and restoration of environment by agriculture.
The objectives of the seminar are to discuss:
1. The current environment issues and their impact on Indian
agriculture.
2. Tools and indices for environmental impact assessment.
3. Approaches for environmental restoration. And
4. Initiatives and legislations for combating environmental change.
Cont...
Agriculture and Environment8
9. Environmental issues and their impact on agriculture
The major environmental issues that Indian
agriculture is currently confronting stem from
global climate change because of emission of
GHGs, water, soil, air pollution emanating from
industry, transport, fertilizer application and
persistent organic pollutants: and loss of
biodiversity.
1. Global climate change
2. Emission of green house gases (GHGs)
3. Water pollution
4. Soil pollution
5. Air pollution
6. Loss of biodiversity Agriculture and Environment9
10. Global climate change
Agriculture and Environment
Over the past decades, the gaseous composition of the
atmosphere has undergone a significant change mainly through
1. increased industrial emissions,
2. fossil fuel combustion,
3. widespread and deforestation and
4. burning of biomass, as well as
5. changes in land use and land management practices.
These anthropogenic activities has resulted in an
increased emission of naturally occurring radioactive gases, e.g.
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O),
popularly known as the ‘green house gases’. These GHGs trap
outgoing infrared radiations from the earth’s surface and thus
raise temperature.
10
11. Cont...
Agriculture and Environment
Parameters CO2 CH4 N2O
Chlorofluoro-
carbons
Avg. conc. 100 years ago
(ppbV)
2,90,000 900 270 0
Current conc. (ppbV) 3,80,000 1,774 319 3 - 5
Projected conc. in the year
2030 (ppbV)
4,00,000-
5,00,000
2,800 –
3,000
400 – 500 3 – 6
Atmospheric life time (years) 5 – 200 9 – 15 114 75
Global warming potential
(100 years relative to CO2)
1 25 298 4,750-10,900
Table : Abundance and lifetime of GHGs in the atmosphere
11
18. Emission of green house gases (GHGs)
Agriculture and Environment
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Sources:
1. Decay of organic matter
2. Forest fires
3. Volcanoes
4. Burning of fossil fuels
5. Deforestation & land-use change
6. Plant, oceans and atmospheric reactions
18
19. Agriculture and Environment
Methane (CH4)
Methane is about 25 times more effective than
CO2 as a heat trapping gas.
Sources:
1. Wetlands (Mars)
2. Organic decay
3. Termites
4. Natural gas & Oil extraction
5. Biomass burning
6. Rice cultivation
7. Cattle
8. Soil
19
20. Agriculture and Environment
Methane (CH4)
Primary source of methane from
agriculture include
1.Animal digestive process
2.Rice cultivation
3.Manure storage & handling
20
Cont...
21. Agriculture and Environment
Methane (CH4)
Methane is formed in soil through metabolic activities
of a small but highly specific bacterial group
called methanogens.
Their activity increases in submerged, anaerobic
conditions developed in wetland rice fields, which
limit the transport of oxygen into the soil, and
the microbial activities render water saturated
soil practically devoid of oxygen. The upland,
aerobic soil does not produce methane. Water
management, therefore plays a major role in
methane emission.
21
22. Agriculture and Environment
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
As a GHG, nitrous oxide is 298 times effective
than CO2.
Sources:
1. Forests
2. Grasslands
3. Oceans
4. Soils
5. Nitrogenous fertilizers
6. Burning of biomass
7. Fossil fuels
While it is removed by oxidation in the atmosphere.
22
23. Agriculture and Environment
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Soil contributes about 65 % of total N2O
emission.
Primary source of Nitrous oxide (N2O)
from agriculture include:
1. Soil cultivation
2. Fertilizer & manure application
3. Burning organic material & Fossil fuels
4. Nitrification
5. Denitrifiction
From an agriculture perspective, Nitrous oxide
(N2O) emission from soil represents a loss soil
nitrogen, reducing the nitrogen use efficiency (NUE).
23
24. Agriculture and Environment
Crop residues
1%
Enteric
fermentation
59%Emission from
soils
12%
Manure
management
5%
Rice cultivation
23%
Relative contribution of sub-sectors of
agriculture to emission in India
24
25. Agriculture and Environment
Water pollution
About 3 million ha land in the country is covered under water reservoirs.
In some parts of country, freshwater resources are getting polluted due
to discharge in them of effluents from industry and urban sewage
as well as leaching and runoff of chemicals used in agriculture. Such
polluted water when used for irrigation can be harmful to crops.
Sources:
Point source : Organics or metal entering surface water discharge from
municipalities or industrial complexes
Non point source : Diffuse sources as a result of urban, industrial area
or rural run off, e.g. sediments and pesticides or nitrates, due to
surface run off from agricultural farms.
Increasing application of fertilizers and pesticides in
agriculture can often result in their leaching or run off
to water bodies. This is largely in areas where fertilizer
application is high, irrigations are frequent, soil texture
is sandy and water table is shallow.
25
26. Table : Quality parameters of freshwater for different uses. @ CPCB
26
Use Drinking water
without
conventional
treatment
Outdoor
bathing
Drinking
water with
conventional
treatment
Propagation of
wild life,
fisheries
Irrigation,
industrial cooling,
controlled waste
disposal
Class A B C D E
Parameters Values
Total coliform organisms per 100 ml <50 <500 <5000
pH 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5 6 – 9 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5
EC <2.25
SAR <26
Dissolved oxygen (mg lit-1) >6 >5 >4 >4
BOD (mg lit-1) <2 <3 <3
Total dissolved solids (mg lit-1) <500 <2100
Free ammonia as (N) (mg lit-1) 1.2
Chlorides (Cl) (mg lit-1) <250 <600
Boron (B) (mg lit-1) 2
Colour (Hazen unit) <10
Sulphates (SO4) (mg lit-1) 400 1000
Nitrate (NO3) (mg lit-1) 45 20
Arsenic (As) (mg lit-1) 0.05
Iron (Fe) (mg lit-1) 0.3
Fluorides (F) (mg lit-1) 1.5
Lead (Pb) (mg lit-1) 0.1
Copper (Cu) (mg lit-1) 1.5
Zinc (Zn) (mg lit-1) 15
27. Table. Permissible limits for industrial effluent discharge on land for
irrigation.
Sr.
No.
Parameters Permissible limits
1. pH 5.5 – 9.0
2. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) for 5 days at 20º C 100
3. Suspended solids (mg litre-1) 200
4. Total dissolved inorganic solids (mg litre-1) 2100
5. Oil and grease (mg litre-1) 10
6. Cyanides (mg litre-1) 0.2
7. Arsenic (mg litre-1) 0.2
8. Chlorides (mg litre-1) 600
9. Boron (mg litre-1) 2
10. Sulphate (mg litre-1) 1000
11. Sodium (%) 60
12. Alpha emitters (milli curie ml-1) 10 – 8
13. Beta emitters (Curie ml-1) 10 – 7
Agriculture and Environment27
29. Effect on water
Water become unfit for
drinking.
The runoff of
agrochemicals into
streams, lakes, and other
surface waters can
increase the growth of
algae.
Eutrophication- Change in
quality and composition
of aquatic ecosystems by
accumulation of
excessive chemicals in
water bodies.
Agriculture and Environment29
30. Polluted water
leading to the
death of fish and
other aquatic
animals.
Excessive use of
agrochemicals has
led to the
contamination of
groundwater .
Agriculture and Environment30
31. Pesticide pathway entering water
There are four major
routes through which
pesticides reach the
water: it may drift
outside of the intended
area when it is sprayed,
it may percolate, or
leach, through the soil,
it may be carried to the
water as runoff, or it
may be spilled, for
example accidentally or
through neglect. They
may also be carried to
water by eroding soil.
Agriculture and Environment31
32. Soil pollution
The quality, i.e. fitness for use, resilience to change and ability
to recover, of Indian soils is getting gradually eroded at farm and
ecosystem level. The major threats to soil quality which involves
physical, biological and chemical properties, emerge from:
1. Loss of organic carbon
2. Erosion
3. Nutrient imbalance
4. Compaction
5. Salinization
6. Water logging
7. Decline in biodiversity
8. Urbanization
9. Contamination with heavy metals & pesticides
10. Adverse impact of climate change
Agriculture and Environment32
33. Soil pollution
Deteriorated soil quality is affecting Indian agriculture adversely
through:
1. Yield loss
2. Low input use efficiency
3. Poor crop quality
4. Reduced farmer’s income & profitability
5. Environmental pollution
6. Climate change
Nearly one third of rice-wheat farmers apply as much as 180 kg
fertilizer N ha-1 to each rice and wheat crop against the local
recommendation of 120 kg N ha-1.
About 3.1 Mha of India’s agricultural land is waterlogged because of
inadequate drainage, improper balance in the ground water and
surface water use and seepage and percolation from unlined
channels. Agriculture and Environment33
34. The problem of water logging in most serious in Haryana, Punjab,
West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.
Stress due to salinity and alkalinity impair soil’s essential ecosystem
functions, resilience and ultimately soil quality.
In saline soils, plant growth is affected because of accumulation of
salts in excess amount causing osmotic stress, toxic effect to some plants
and nutritional imbalance to some.
About 4.1 Mha of India’s land is affected by salinity. It is serious
problem in Uttar Pradesh and Gujrat.
The problem of alkali soils, on the other hand, is because of excess of
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP).
Alkalinity with high pH, excess ESP and high CaCO3 adversely
affects physical properties of the soil, prevent mineralization of organic
matter and causes volatilization loss of applied fertilizer N as NH3.
Agriculture and Environment34
Soil pollution
36. Driving forces and threats affecting soil
quality and strategies for mitigation
Agriculture and Environment
Driving forces :
Socio-economic (Agriculture, transport, energy)
Ecological (Climate change, environmental pollution)
Function of soil :
1. Production of biomass 2. Physical structure
3. Filtering and buffering 4. Source of new material
5. Biological habitat 6. Geogenic and cultural habitat
Threats:
Loss of organic matter
Erosion
Nutrient imbalance
Compaction
Salinization
Decline in biodiversity
Contamination
Urbanization
Mitigation:
Carbon sequestration
Conservation Agriculture
Integrated Nutrient Mgt.
Erosion control
Diversification
Amelioration
Impact :
Yield loss
Poor crop quality
Pollution
Low input
efficiency
Reduced income
Climate change
36
37. Soil health
Soil health is the
capacity of soil to
function within
ecosystem and land
use boundaries, to
sustain productivity
maintain
environmental
quality, and
promote plant and
animal health.
Agriculture and Environment37
39. CHARACTERISTICS OF HEALTHY SOILS
Good soil tilth.
Sufficient depth.
Sufficient but not excess of nutrients.
Small population of plant pathogens and
insects.
Good drainage.
Large population of beneficial organisms.
Low weed pressure.
Free of chemicals and toxins
Resistant to degradation.
Agriculture and Environment39
40. Negative impacts of agrochemicals on soil health
Kills beneficial organisms.
Increase in nitrate levels of soils.
Damage natural make up of soil.
Alters the pH.
Decrease soil quality.
Poor soil physical condition.
Toxic to microbes.
Toxicity of nutrients.
Kills earthworms.
Growth regulators:
Residual effect in agricultural commodies
Toxic to soil organisms.
Agriculture and Environment40
41. Fertilizer pollution
Fertilizer use efficiency in Indian agriculture is quite low even with
good management practices.
Efficiency of N fertilizer use - 40 %
P use efficiency - 20 %
K use efficiency - 50 %
Micronutrient use efficiency - 2 %
Many fertilizers, phosphate fertilizers, in particular, containing
varying amounts of trace elements such as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd),
chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni) and lead (Pb).
These harmful elements may accumulate in soil and cause long term
effects on the crop yield & quality and damage of soil microbes.
through food and feed, they may also get into human and livestock
and cause health problems, if the accumulation exceeds the threshold
level.
Agriculture and Environment41
43. Impaired soil health : Through the imbalance use of fertilizers and other
chemicals in agriculture affects the soil physical, chemical and biological
properties.
Agriculture and Environment43
44. Agriculture and Environment44
Impaired human health : The infamous incidences if “itai itai” and
“minamata” diseases due to cadmium and mercury toxicity, respectively, are the
examples of potential threat of heavy metal pollution.
45. Table : Environmental problems associated with fertilizer use and mitigation
strategies.
Agriculture and Environment45
Environmental
problem
Causative mechanism Mitigation strategies
Ground water
contamination
Nitrate leaching Judicious use of fertilizers,
increasing efficiencies,
nitrification inhibitors, coated
fertilizer use
Eutrophication Erosion and surface run off Reduce surface run off, water
harvesting, controlled irrigation,
control erosion
Methaemoglobinemia Nitric acid originating from
reaction of N oxides with
moisture in atmosphere,
ammonia volatilization
Reduce ammonia volatilization
loss, decrease the pH of soil,
increase CEC, use fertilizer
formulations and inhibitors.
Stratospheric ozone
depletion
Nitrous oxide emission
from depletion and global
warming
Use of nitrification inhibitor and
soil urease inhibitor, increase N-
use efficiency
46. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1995
identified 12 compounds, known as the ‘dirty dozen’ which included :
Agriculture and Environment46
Organo-chlorine pesticides Industrial chemicals Industrial by-products
1. Aldrin Hexachlorobenzene
(HCB)
Dioxins
2. Chlordane Polychlorinated
biphenyl (PCB)
Furans
3. DDT
4. Dieldrin
5. Endrin
6. Heptachlor
7. Mirex
8. Toxaphene
47. POPs
Nearly 60,000 tonnes of pesticides are entering the Indian
environment each year of which 1/3rd is used in public-health
programmes and 2/3rd in agriculture.
The BHC, DDT and Malathion account for the bulk.
Residues of some of the highly persistence pesticides (DDT, HCH,
Aldrin) have been found in various food, fodder, feed items.
Part of applied pesticides, irrespective of crop, applicator or the
formulation, ultimately finds its way into the soil, water and food
chain.
Long term effects of pesticides residues in the human body
include carcinogenicity, reduced life span & fertility, increased
cholesterol, high infant mortality and varied metabolic and genetic
disorders.
Agriculture and Environment47
52. Kerala’s Endosulfan tragedy
The UNO classifies
Endosulfan as highly
dangerous insect killer
and banned in 62
countries.
Endosulfan, a highly
toxic organochlorine
pesticide was sprayed
in the cashew
plantations in
Kasaragod District
sine 1976, till 2001
regularly three times
every year.
Agriculture and Environment52
53. Air pollution
Air pollution refers to the presence of various contaminants such as
gases, dust, fumes, mist, soot, tar, vapors and suspended particulate
matter in the air to the level which affects normal biological processes of
humans, animals, plants and other microorganisms or interfere with
comfortable enjoyment of life and property.
The major air pollutants of concern in respect to agriculture are
sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrogen fluoride (HF),
peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN), ozone (O3), hydrocarbon (HC), ethylene
(C2H4), ammonia (NH3) and suspended particulate matter (SPM).
These gaseous pollutants and heavy metals enter plants mainly
through stomata and roots which disrupt photosynthetic, respiratory and
other biochemical and structural systems of plants and finally affect the
quantity and quality of crops with or without showing physiological
disorders.
Agriculture and Environment53
54. Air pollution
Compared to other cereals and food grain crops, vegetables are more
prone to gaseous and metallic pollutants as most of the vegetables are
succulents and physiologically more active.
Another form of SO2 injuries appear on the plants resulting from its
conversion into acid rain and vegetables are more affected with it than
other crop plants.
Amongst the vegetables, the leafy ones, such as spinach, fenugreek,
mustard, cauliflower and tomato are more affected as compared to hardy
vegetables viz., brinjal and beans.
Mechanical threshing of crops, especially wheat, leads to increased
particulate matter in air which can cause respiratory diseases and aalergy
in rural areas.
Burning of crop residues , such as rice straw in North-Western India,
also results in widespread air pollution. Asian brown cloud or haze is a
consequence of such a pollution.
Agriculture and Environment54
55. About 60 % and 82 % of rice straw produced in the North-
western stares of Haryana and Punjab, respectively, are
burned in the fields lading to release of soot particles and
smoke causing human health problems such as asthma,
emission of green house gases and loss of plant nutrients such
as N, P, K and S.
Almost entire amounts of C and N, 25 % of P, 50 % of S
and 20 % of K present in straw are lost due to burning.
Therefore burning of crop residues should be avoided and
alternate measures of disposal of residues should be found out.
Table : Threshold limits of different air pollutants on vegetation
Agriculture and Environment55
Air pollution
Pollutants SO2 O3 PAN NOx HF C2H4 NH3
Threshold
(ppm)
0.3 0.04 0.01 2.5 0.0001 0.05 10 - 20
56. Effect on air
Pesticides can contribute to
air pollution.
Pesticide drift occurs when
pesticides suspended in the
air as particles are carried
by wind to other areas.
Weather conditions at the
time of application as well as
temperature and relative
humidity change the spread
of the pesticide in the air.
Agriculture and Environment56
57. Low relative
humidity and high
temperature result
in more spray
evaporating.
The polluted air is
inhaled by humans
end with up with
different diseases.
Agriculture and Environment57
58. The aerial spraying of
Endosulfan was allegedly
undertaken to contain the
menace of the tea
mosquito bug.
By 1990s health disorders
of very serious nature
among the human
population came to the
lime light.
Children were found to be
the worst affected with
congenital anomalies,
mental retardation,
physical deformities,
cerebral palsy, epilepsy
etc
Agriculture and Environment
58
60. Ozone pollution
Ozone is deposited on the plant canopies, enters the leaf through
stomata and decreases net photosynthesis via oxidative damage to
cell membranes, especially to chloroplasts and consequently reduces
dry matter production.
Noticeable effects of ozone pollution to the leaves of the crops
include changes in shape , discoloration and necrosis.
Reduction in nutrient content of vegetable crops (Fe in spinach &
β-carotene in carrot) is also observed.
Ozone has a significant climate change impact by adversely
affecting plant’s ability to remove CO2 from the atmosphere by
reducing CO2 uptake leading to more accumulation of CO2 in the
atmosphere.
Agriculture and Environment60
61. Loss of biodiversity
India is endowed with diverse ecosystems as tropical rain forests,
temperate forest, alpine vegetation, wetlands and mangroves.
However, some reasons are responsible for loss of bio-
diversity
1. Over-exploitation,
2. Habitat destruction,
3. Pollution and
4. Species extinction
Continuous use of fertilizers & pesticides, mechanization,
monoculture, adoption of limited number of high-yielding crop
varieties and hybrids, limited crops and farm animal diversification
in the last few decades have gradually led to the genetic and species
erosion in some agricultural lands.
Increasing use tractors in agriculture and transportation has
resulted in losses of cattle diversity and population in our country.
Agriculture and Environment61
62. Environmental risk from genetically modifies organisms (GMOs)
Herbicide tolerance (HT) and insect resistance (Bt) have been
successfully engineered into corn, cotton, soybeans and canola.
In India, so far, only Bt cotton is approved for this purpose.
The environmental risk due to releasing of GMOs could be due
to:
1. Risk invasiveness
2. Direct and indirect non-target effects on beneficial and
native organisms
3. Occurrence of new viral diseases
4. Loss of crop bio-diversity
Transgenic plants can also increase removal of toxic heavy
metals from polluted soil & water and sequester these into plant
tissue, or can transform pollutions into less toxic forms.
Agriculture and Environment62
63. Human health
Direct effect
Indirect effect
Air
Water
Food chain
Ingestion
Agriculture and Environment63
64. Pesticides can enter the body
through inhalation of aerosols,
dust and vapour that contain
pesticides; through oral exposure
by consuming food/water; and
through skin exposure by direct
contact.
The effects of pesticides on
human health depend on the
toxicity of the chemical and the
length and magnitude of
exposure.
Farm workers and their family
experience the greatest exposure
to agricultural pesticides through
direct contact.
Pesticides entering human body
Agriculture and Environment64
65. Pesticide exposure can
cause a variety of adverse
health effects, ranging
from simple irritation of
the skin and eyes.
It also affects the
nervous system, mimicking
hormones causing
reproductive problems,
and also causing cancer.
Children are more
susceptible and sensitive
to pesticides, because
they are still developing
and have a weaker immune
system than adults.
Agriculture and Environment65
68. The ideal pesticide and the nightmare
insect pest
The ideal pest-killing chemical has
these qualities:
Kill only target pest.
Not cause genetic resistance in the
target organism.
Disappear or break down into harmless
chemicals after doing its job.
Be more cost-effective than doing
nothing. It would stay exactly where it
was put and not move around in the
environment.
There is no such thing!
Agriculture and Environment68
69. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
To assess the environmental impact of agriculture on the
scale of farming region, six methods are used depending on
the objectives :
1. Environmental risk mapping
2. Life cycle analysis
3. Environmental impact assessment
4. Multi-agent system
5. Linear programming
6. Agro-environmental indicators
Agriculture and Environment69
70. Indices for Environmental Monitoring
Agriculture and Environment70
1. Air quality index (AQI)
2. Biocide residue index (BRI)
3. Ecological footprint
4. Environmental sustainability index (ESI)
5. Environmental performance index (EPI)
6. Environmental vulnerability index (EVI)
7. Global warming potential (GWP)
8. P index
9. T value (Soil loss tolerance)
10. Soil quality indicator (SQI)
11. Soil sustainability index (SSI)
12. Soil threat index (STI)
13. Sustainable yield index (SYI)
14. Water quality index
71. Impaired environment can be restored by some
tools :
1. Carbon sequestration
2. Conservation agriculture
3. Crop diversification
4. Amelioration of polluted environment
5. Renewable source of energy
6. Bio-diesel crops
7. Agricultural waste management
Agriculture and Environment71
Environmental restoration
72. Environmental restoration
Carbon sequestration :
Organic carbon content of soil is the single most important parameter
affecting soil quality. Therefore, carbon sequestration has high potential
in improving soil quality.
Besides, it reduces GHGs emission, environmental pollution and
enhancing bio-diversity resulting in increased productivity.
Carbon can be sequestered in soil by increasing C input and/or
decreasing their decomposition.
Soil management strategies for carbon sequestration include three
approaches :
1. Management of soils to maintain existing levels of organic
matter such as reduced tillage and no tillage practices.
2. To manage carbon degraded soils to restore depleted soil
organic matter level. Wastelands in India are over 100 Mha of which 70
% are carbon degraded.
3. To manage soils to enlarge soil organic matter pools by
improving soil fertility. Agriculture and Environment72
73. Carbon sequestration :
Increase in SOC by 1 Mg ha-1 can result in increase in grain yield by
30 – 50 kg ha-1 of rice, wheat, millets and beans and 100 – 140 kg ha-1 of
maize and sorghum with adoption of appropriate soil and crop
management practices.
Table : Extend of soil degradation in India and potential of carbon
sequestration in these soils, if restoration is undertaken
Agriculture and Environment73
Degradation Area (Mha) SOC sequestration
potential (Tg/yr)
Water erosion 32.8 2.6 – 3.9
Wind erosion 10.8 0.4 – 0.7
Soil fertility decline 29.4 3.5 – 4.4
Water logging 3.1 0.1 - 0.2
Salinization 4.1 0.5 – 0.6
Desertification 68.1 2.7 – 4.1
Total 148.3 9.8 – 13.9
74. Conservation Agriculture
CA that features little or no soil disturbance,
no burning of crop residues,
direct seeding into previously untilled soil,
crop rotations,
permanent soil cover particularly through the
retention of crop residues has made considerable progress in the USA,
Latin America, Australia, China and South & Central Asia.
In India, Resource conservation technologies (RCTs) involving zero
or minimum tillage with direct seeding and bed planting with residue
mulch are being advocated as the alternatives to the conventional rice-
wheat systems and for improving sustainability.
The RCTs are more resource efficient : reduced nutrient loss,
increased soil organic C content, use less inputs, improved production
and income and reduced GHG emission compared to the conventional
practices
Agriculture and Environment74
75. Table : Potential benefits of RCTs in terms of agriculture sustainability and
climate change mitigation relative to conventional practices
Agriculture and Environment75
RCTs Potential benefits relative to conventional practices
Zero tillage Reduce water use, C sequestration, increased yield and income,
reduced fuel consumption, reduced GHG emission, more
tolerant to heat stress
Laser-aided land leveling Reduced water use, more efficient tractor use, reduced fuel
consumption, reduced GHG emission, increased area for
cultivation
Direct drill seeding to rice Less requirement of water, saves time, post harvest condition
of field is better for succeeding crop, deeper root growth and
better tolerance to water and heat stress, reduced methane
emission
Diversification Efficient use of water, increased income, increased nutritional
security, conserve soil fertility, reduced risk
Raised bed planting Less water use, improved drainage, better residue management,
less lodging of crops, more tolerant to water stress
Leaf colour chart (LCC) Reduced N fertilizer requirement, reduced N loss, and
environmental pollution, reduced N2O emission
76. Crop diversification
Diversification i.e. growing a range of crops suited to different
sowing and harvesting times, assists in achieving sustainable
productivity by allowing farmers to employ biological cycles to
minimize inputs , maximize yields, conserve resource base and
reduce risk from both environmental and economic factors.
To reserve the downward trend of sustainable productivity,
substantial change in the current cropping system is required,
including reducing tillage and improving organic matter status.
Fortunately, the farmers of the rice-wheat belt have take taken
the initiative to diversify their farming systems by including short
duration crops e.g. potato, soybean, moongbean, cowpea, pea,
mustard and maize in different combinations.
Agriculture and Environment76
77. Pollution amelioration
Environment (soil & water) polluted by substances hazardous to plant
growth and human can be rectified by bio-remediation i.e. using
biological agents to reclaim soil and water.
Microbes are generally useful for assisting in reclamation of sites with
heavy metal problems. Several fungi are also good in accumulation of
heavy metals, Cd, Cu, Hg, Pb, Zn & others. Rhizopus arrhizus is, for
example, useful in treating uranium and thorium.
Higher terrestrial plants can also be used for environmental
restoration, the process called phyto-remediation.
The ability of fungi to transform a wide variety of hazardous
chemicals has aroused interest in using them in bio-remediation. The
fungi are unique among microorganisms because they secrete a variety of
extra-cellular enzymes that facilitate decomposition of some pollutants
like Pentachlorophenyl and creosote in soil.
Bacteria are also good degraders of toxic pesticides such as
halocarbons. Agriculture and Environment77
78. Renewable sources of energy
Renewable energy sources are the important means of supplementing
conventional fossil fuels, which are invariably accompanied with
environmental problems of local and global dimensions.
Bio-fuel including wood fuel, charcoal, biogas, ethanol, agriculture
waste, crop residues and energy crops have been considered as the
sources, which could be used as substitute to the environment fuel.
The liquid biofuel , usually in the form of alcohol, can be produced
from the plant carbohydrates after enzymatic hydrolysis and
fermentation. Unlike fossil fuels, ethanol is a renewable energy source
produced through fermentation of sugar
Although fungi, bacteria and yeast can be used for fermentation and
commonly used to ferment glucose to ethanol in the bakery.
Theoretically, 100 g of glucose will produce 51.4 g of ethanol (Net
gain of <48 g ethanol/ 100 g glucose) and 48.8 g of carbon dioxide.
Agriculture and Environment78
79. Bio-diesel
Non edible oil from Jatropha curcas (Ratanjot) and Pongamia
pinnata (Karanj) can also be used for biodiesel production. The Jatropha
seeds contain 30 – 35 % of non edible oil. However, commercial
viability of Jatropha cultivation is yet to be established.
Oil from crops such as rapeseed & mustard, sunflower, olive,
soybean, canola, cotton seed, palm, coconut, peanut and jojoba can be
used for biodiesel production.
Currently, soybean is the primary feedstock in the US for biodiesel
production.
Another feedstock for biodiesel is aquatic unicellular green algae with
high growth rate and high oil content (over 50 %). Under good
conditions these algae can double their biomass in less than 24 hours.
Agriculture and Environment79
80. Agricultural waste management
Agricultural residues are generally considered as wastes. Some of these
residues though are used for cattle feed, livestock bedding, thatching material for
houses and a source of domestic energy.
The remaining residues are generally left unattended as such to decompose or
sometimes even burnt.
Such practices not only result in waste of the nutrients in the residues but also
contribute to air pollution and global warming.
Fruits, vegetable, sugar, paper and pulp industries leave lot of crop residues,
which need to be disposed of. Since demand of processed food is increasing, in
future more such wastes will be generated.
Typically biogas evolved from cattle dung based plant is composed of (by
volume) 50 – 60 % methane, 30 – 40 % CO2, 0.5 – 1 % hydrogen, and 4 – 6 %
nitrogen.
The anaerobically digested slurry produced from biogas plant contains 1.4 –
1.8 % N, 0.4 – 0.8 % P, 0.7 – 1.0 % K, 20 – 25 % organic carbon, 1 – 3 % Ca, 1 –
2 % Mg and about 1 % S with a C:N 15 – 20.
Agriculture and Environment80
81. Initiatives for combating Global Environment Change
Organization
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 1972 (Nairobi, Kenya)
Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 1988 (Washington, DC)
World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 1950 Geneva (Switzerland)
United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), 3-14 June, 1992, Rio de Janeiro
Global Environment Facility (GEF)
Environmental legislation
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, (1974)
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, (1981)
The Environment (Protection) Act, (1986)
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment Act, (1987)
Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, (1989)
The Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, (2000)
The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules, (2000)
The Biological Diversity Act, (2002)
Agriculture and Environment81
85. Table : 3 Mean variables of cowpea (V. unguiculata) and common bean (P. vulgaris)
in function of different fertilizations.
Agriculture and Environment85
Treatment
Plant height
(cm)
Stem diameter
(mm)
Chlorophyll
a
Chlorophyll
b
Total
chlorophyll
Leaf biofertilizer 35.17 9.76 35.17 9.76 44.94
Organic compost 37.95 11.59 37.95 11.59 49.55
Mineral fertilizer 35.22 8.99 35.22 8.99 44.22
Without fertilizer 34.59 9.02 34.59 9.02 43.61
Mean 35.73 9.84 35.73 9.84 45.58
CV (%) 6.86 18.62 6.86 18.62 8.35
Brazil Cavalcante et al., 2016
86. Table : 4 Mean variables of cowpea (V. unguiculata) and common bean (P. vulgaris)
in function of different fertilizations.
Agriculture and Environment86
Treatment No. of pods
No. of seeds/
pod
Pod length
(cm)
100 seed
weight (g)
Productivity
(kg ha-1)
Leaf biofertilizer 21.18 14.44 14.44 21.18 2355.78
Organic compost 21.42 14.65 14.65 21.42 3060.00
Mineral fertilizer 8.27 14.57 14.57 8.27 2779.57
Without fertilizer 18.07 13.03 13.03 18.07 2145.28
Mean 17.23 14.17 14.17 17.23 2585.16
CV (%) 11.34 5.84 5.84 11.34 18.82
Brazil Cavalcante et al., 2016
87. Table : 5 Effect of chemical fertilizer and bio fertilizer on plant height (cm) and no. of
grains per plant of rice.
87
Allahabad, India Alam & Seth, 2012
Treatment Pot No. Plant height (cm) Avg. plant height
(cm)
No. of grains/plant Avg No. of
grains/plant
No Treatment
(Pot Control)
1 78.5
78.7
271
244
2 79.0 222
3 75.0 145
4 79.5 189
5 81.5 395
Chemical
Fertilizer
(NPK)
6 81.0
84.7
594
610
7 87.5 670
8 85.0 480
9 83.0 617
10 87.0 691
Bio-fertilizer
(BGA)
11 96.5
91.8
910
893
12 82.0 791
13 94.0 1009
14 91.0 989
15 95.5 769
88. Table : 6 Grain yield (kg ha-1) of rice across biological and chemical fertilizers.
88
Lahijan, Iran Azin Nasrollah Zadeh, 2014
Treatments Ist year IInd year Average
Biological fertilizer (M)
No Fertilizer (M1) 2924 2972 2948
10 ton/ ha cow dung (M2) 2854 3050 2952
20 ton/ ha cow dung (M3) 3081 2879 2980
5 ton/ ha azolla compost (M4) 3440 3334 3387
Mean 3074.75 3058.75 3066.75
Chemical fertilizers (S)
No fertilizer (S1) 2408 2638 2523
40 kg N/ha (S2) 3158 2982 3070
60 kg N/ha (S3) 3314 3258 3286
80 kg N/ha (S4) 3420 3326 3373
Mean 3075 3051 3063
89. Agriculture and Environment89
Conclusion
1._Organic substitutes viz. FYM, manures, composts, verm-icomposts, biofertilizers,
green manures in organic farming found better for both the dimensions ecology (safe to
atmosphere, soil and human health) as well as for economy after 1 or 2 years.
2. Conservation agriculture is proposed safe and conserving the available natural
resources through stubble mulch (soil cover), zero / minimum tillage and better
utilization of agriculture waste materials.
3. Maximum utilization of eco-friendly fuel substitutes viz. biodiesel and biogas for the
reduction of hazardous chemical emission in the ecosystem.
4. Crop should be diversified land fallow should be kept in the cropping system suitable
to the particular ecosystem based on the local demands.
5. Organic matter should be incorporated timely for the better soil biology, chemistry
and physics.
6. Phyto-remediation - problematic soils can be remedised with the help of augmentation
of microbes, organic matter and vegetation over soil.
7. Integration of available farm enterprises can be implemented for the conservation
and better utilization of available natural resource without impairment to ecology and
economy.
90. Is it really possible to grow
crops without agrochemicals ?
Agriculture and Environment90