This document provides information about genome projects and the development of current information libraries. It discusses different types of genome projects conducted on organisms from all domains of life. These include projects on humans, plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, archaea, and viruses. It also describes the methods used in genome projects, such as genome assembly, annotation, and high-throughput sequencing techniques including de novo sequencing and resequencing. Genome annotation methods and tools are also outlined. The document concludes by noting the tremendous progress made in high-throughput sequencing capabilities, allowing for rapid sequencing of many genomes.
Whole genome sequencing of arabidopsis thalianaBhavya Sree
arabidopsis is the representative of plant kingdom or the 'model plant'.it is the first plant genome sequenced. the sequences lead to the overall understanding of the plant kingdom, better understanding of various genes,the important metabolic pathways, evolution etc
A plant genome project aims to discover all genes and their function in a particular plant species.
The main objective of genomic research in any species is to sequence the whole genome and functions of all the different coding and non-coding sequences.
These techniques helped in preparation of molecular maps of many plant genomes.
Plant genome projects initially focused on a few model organisms that are characterized by small genomes or their amenability to genetic studies
Since sequencing technologies have moved on, sequencing cost have dropped and bioinformatics tools advanced, the genomes of many plant species including the enormous genome of bread wheat have been assembled
Genome sequencing projects have been carried out on all three plant genomes: the nuclear, chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes
This opened venues for advanced molecular breeding and manipulation of plant species, but also have accelerated phylogenetics studies amongst species
Several excellent curated plant genome databases, besides the general nucleotide data base archives, allow public access of plant genomes
'Genomics' is nothing but the study of entire genetic compliment of an organism. Plant genomics is study of plant genome. This is my topic of M.Sc. course 'Plant biotechnology'.
Whole genome sequencing of arabidopsis thalianaBhavya Sree
arabidopsis is the representative of plant kingdom or the 'model plant'.it is the first plant genome sequenced. the sequences lead to the overall understanding of the plant kingdom, better understanding of various genes,the important metabolic pathways, evolution etc
A plant genome project aims to discover all genes and their function in a particular plant species.
The main objective of genomic research in any species is to sequence the whole genome and functions of all the different coding and non-coding sequences.
These techniques helped in preparation of molecular maps of many plant genomes.
Plant genome projects initially focused on a few model organisms that are characterized by small genomes or their amenability to genetic studies
Since sequencing technologies have moved on, sequencing cost have dropped and bioinformatics tools advanced, the genomes of many plant species including the enormous genome of bread wheat have been assembled
Genome sequencing projects have been carried out on all three plant genomes: the nuclear, chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes
This opened venues for advanced molecular breeding and manipulation of plant species, but also have accelerated phylogenetics studies amongst species
Several excellent curated plant genome databases, besides the general nucleotide data base archives, allow public access of plant genomes
'Genomics' is nothing but the study of entire genetic compliment of an organism. Plant genomics is study of plant genome. This is my topic of M.Sc. course 'Plant biotechnology'.
This is a compilation of the Yeast genome project from the different databases and sources.
By:
Nazish Nehal,
M. Tech (Biotechnology),
University School of Biotechnology (USBT),
Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University (GGSIPU),
New Delhi (INDIA)
Genome: The entire chromosomal genetic material of an organism.
Sequencing a genome: Determining the identity and order of nucleotides in the genetic material – usually DNA, sometimes RNA, of an organism.
A retrospective look at the state of many famous modern genome sequences, and a cautionary tale of the dangers in assuming that genome sequence and/or its annotations are finished.
PROKARYOTIC TRANSCRIPTOMICS AND METAGENOMICSLubna MRL
After billions of years of evolution, prokaryotes have developed a huge diversity of regulatory mechanisms, many of which are probably uncharacterized. Now that the powerful tool of whole-transcriptome analysis can be used to study the RNA of bacteria and archaea, a new set of un expected RNA-based regulatory strategies might be revealed.
Metagenomics, together with in vitro evolution and high-throughput screening technologies, provides industry with an unprecedented chance to bring biomolecules into industrial application.
Next Generation Sequencing and its Applications in Medical Research - Frances...Sri Ambati
The so-called “next-generation” sequencing (NGS) technologies allows us, in a short time and in parallel, to sequence massive amounts of DNA, overcoming the limitations of the original Sanger sequencing methods used to sequence the first human genome. NGS technologies have had an enormous impact on biomedical research within a short time frame. This talk will give an overview of these applications with specific examples from Mendelian genomics and cancer research. #h2ony
This is a compilation of the Yeast genome project from the different databases and sources.
By:
Nazish Nehal,
M. Tech (Biotechnology),
University School of Biotechnology (USBT),
Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University (GGSIPU),
New Delhi (INDIA)
Genome: The entire chromosomal genetic material of an organism.
Sequencing a genome: Determining the identity and order of nucleotides in the genetic material – usually DNA, sometimes RNA, of an organism.
A retrospective look at the state of many famous modern genome sequences, and a cautionary tale of the dangers in assuming that genome sequence and/or its annotations are finished.
PROKARYOTIC TRANSCRIPTOMICS AND METAGENOMICSLubna MRL
After billions of years of evolution, prokaryotes have developed a huge diversity of regulatory mechanisms, many of which are probably uncharacterized. Now that the powerful tool of whole-transcriptome analysis can be used to study the RNA of bacteria and archaea, a new set of un expected RNA-based regulatory strategies might be revealed.
Metagenomics, together with in vitro evolution and high-throughput screening technologies, provides industry with an unprecedented chance to bring biomolecules into industrial application.
Next Generation Sequencing and its Applications in Medical Research - Frances...Sri Ambati
The so-called “next-generation” sequencing (NGS) technologies allows us, in a short time and in parallel, to sequence massive amounts of DNA, overcoming the limitations of the original Sanger sequencing methods used to sequence the first human genome. NGS technologies have had an enormous impact on biomedical research within a short time frame. This talk will give an overview of these applications with specific examples from Mendelian genomics and cancer research. #h2ony
Web Apollo: Lessons learned from community-based biocuration efforts.Monica Munoz-Torres
This presentation tries to highlight the importance and relevance of community-based curation of biological data. It describes the results of harvesting expertise from dispersed researchers assigning functions to predicted and curated peptides, as well as collaborative efforts for standardization of genes and gene product attributes across species and databases.
What is bioinformatics?
About human genome
Human genome project
Aim of human genome project
History
Sequencing Strategy
Benefits of Human Genome Project research
Disadvantages of human genome project
Conclusion
References
Microbial Metagenomics Drives a New CyberinfrastructureLarry Smarr
06.03.03
Invited Talk
School of Biological Sciences
University of California, Irvine
Title: Microbial Metagenomics Drives a New Cyberinfrastructure
Irvine, CA
The Human Genome Project (HGP) was an international scientific research project with the goal of determining the base pairs that make up human DNA, and of identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome from both a physical and a functional standpoint.
Human Genome Project (HGP) was an international scientific research project with the goal of determining the base pairs that make up human DNA, and of identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome from both a physical and a functional
Building a Community Cyberinfrastructure to Support Marine Microbial Ecology ...Larry Smarr
06.09.15
Invited Talk
2006 Synthetic Biology Symposium
Aliso Creek Inn
Title: Building a Community Cyberinfrastructure to Support Marine Microbial Ecology Metagenomics
Laguna Beach, CA
Similar to Genome sequencing and the development of our current information library (20)
Homology Modelling through modeller and its analysis using Ramachandran Plot
Modeller practical. Full tutorial created by Zarlish Attique
https://salilab.org/modeller/
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Genome sequencing and the development of our current information library
1. Genome projects and the development of our current
information library
Name: Zarlish Attique
Roll no: 187104
BS: Bioinformatics
Semester: 5th
Subject: Genomics
Teacher: Muhammad Rizwan
Date: 12,January,2020
Government Post Graduate College Mandian Abbottabad
Power point slides created by Zarlish Attique
2. Table of Contents
• Genome projects
• Different types of genome projects
• Genome projects for five kingdom classification
• Methods use for genome projects
• Current information library and conclusion
3. Genome Projects
Scientific endeavors ultimately aim to determine the
complete genome sequence of an organism and to
annotate protein-coding genes and other important
genome-encoded features.
1. Genome Assembly: the process of taking a large
number of short DNA sequences and putting them
back together to create a representation of the
original chromosomes from which the DNA
originated.
2. Genome annotation: the process of identifying
attaching biological information to sequences , and
particularly in identifying the locations of genes and
determining what those genes do.
Figure: Represents different important stages
and involvements in the genome projects.
Genome Projects and development of our current information
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4. Some genome projects
o Genomic Science Program: microbes and plants at
the molecular, cellular, and community levels. a
predictive understanding of how living systems operate.
https://genomicscience.energy.gov/
o ENCODE: ENCyclopedia of DNA Elements: In
September 2003, to carry out a project to identify all
functional elements in the human genome sequence.
o The 100,000 Genomes Project Wellcome Trust
Sanger Institute in Hinxton; the Beijing Genomics
Institute Shenzhen; and the US NIH National Human
Genome Research Institute.
https://www.internationalgenome.org/data
Genome Projects and development of our current information
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5. Some genome projects
o Roadmap Epigenomics Project: Producing a public
resource of human epigenomic data to catalyze basic biology
and disease-oriented research and to map DNA methylation,
histone modifications, chromatin accessibility and small RNA
transcripts.
http://www.roadmapepigenomics.org/
o Genographic Project: Led by National Geographic and IBM:
technologies to analyze historical patterns in DNA from
participants around the world to better understand our human
genetic roots.
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/sorry/genographic
o Knockout Mouse Phenotyping Program (KOMP2):
Leading the way as part of the International Mouse
Phenotyping Consortium (IMPC) in understanding the aging
process and diseases that occur later in life.
Genome Projects and development of our current information
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6. Some genome projects
o International HapMap Project: a haplotype map of the
human genome: to find genes affecting health, disease, and
responses to drugs and environmental factors.
http://www.hapmap.org/
o Microbial Genome Project: U.S. Department of Energy
(DOE) led the Microbial Genome Project from 1994-
2005.:finding alternative sources of energy, understanding
biological carbon cycling.
o Environmental Genome Project: complex inter-
relationship between multiple genetic and environmental
factors. Goal of the EGP is to characterize how specific
human genetic variations, or polymorphisms, contribute to
environmentally induced disease susceptibility.
https://www.niehs.nih.gov/
Genome Projects and development of our current information
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7. Some genome projects
o Cancer Genome Anatomy Project: to determine the gene
expression profiles of normal, precancer, and cancer cells,
leading eventually to improved detection, diagnosis, and
treatment for the patient.
https://cgap.nci.nih.gov/
o Chimpanzee genome Project: by comparing the genomes
of humans and other apes, to better understand what makes
humans distinct from other species from a genetic perspective,
published in Nature on September 1, 2005, there are
differences between human and chimpanzee genes.
o 100K Pathogen Genome Project: launched in July 2012,
infectious microorganisms to create a database of bacterial
genome sequences for use in public health, outbreak detection,
and bacterial pathogen detection.
https://www.internationalgenome.org/data
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8. Species Strain Base Pairs Genes
Akkermansia muciniphila ATCC BAA-835 2,664,102 2,176
Akkermansia muciniphila Urmite 2,664,714 2,192
Chlamydia muridarum Nigg 1,072,950 904
Chlamydia trachomatis AHAR13 1,044,459 911
Chlamydia trachomatis DUW 1,042,519 894
Chlamydophila abortus S26-3 1,144,377 961
MONERA
Following are the sequenced genomes of monerans.
Genome Projects and development of our current information
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9. Protists
Following are the six earliest sequenced genomes of protists.
Organism Genome size Organization Year of
completion
Guillardia theta 0.551 Mb Canadian Institute of Advanced
Research, Philipps-University Marburg and
the University of British Columbia
2001
Plasmodium falciparum
Clone:3D7
22.9 Mb Malaria Genome Project Consortium 2002
Plasmodium yoelii yoelii
Strain:17XNL
23.1 Mb TIGR and NMRC 2002
Cryptosporidium hominis
Strain:TU502
10.4 Mb Virginia Commonwealth University 2004
Cryptosporidium parvum
C- or genotype 2 isolate
16.5 Mb UCSF and University of Minnesota 2004
Thalassiosira pseudonana
Strain:CCMP 1335
34.5 Mb Joint Genome Institute and the University of
Washington
2004
Genome Projects and development of our current information
library
9
10. Plants
Following are the five earliest sequenced genomes of plants.
Organism Genome size Organization Year of
completion
Arabidopsis thaliana
Ecotype:Columbia
135 Mb Arabidopsis Genome Initiative 2000
Cyanidioschyzon merolae
Strain:10D
16.5 Mb University of Tokyo, Rikkyo University, Saitama
University and Kumamoto University
2004
Oryza sativa
ssp indica
420 Mb Beijing Genomics Institute, Zhejiang University
and the Chinese Academy of Sciences
2002
Ostreococcus tauri 12.6 Mb Laboratoire Arago 2006
Populus trichocarpa 550 Mb The International Poplar Genome Consortium 2006
Genome Projects and development of our current information
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11. Fungi
Organism Genome
size
Organization Year of
completion
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Strain:S288C
12.1 Mb International Collaboration for the Yeast Genome
Sequencing
1996
Encephalitozoon cuniculi 2.9 Mb Genoscope and Université Blaise Pascal 2001
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Strain:972h-
14 Mb Sanger Institute and Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory 2002
Neurospora crassa 40 Mb Broad Institute Oregon Health and science
university, University of Kentucky, and the University of
Kansas
2003
Phanerochaete chrysosporium
Strain:RP78 Imagine!
30 Mb Joint Genome Institute 2004
Following are the five earliest sequenced genomes of fungi.
Genome Projects and development of our current information
library
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12. Animals
Following are the five earliest sequenced genomes of animals.
Organism Genome
size
Number of
genes
predicted
Organization Year of completion
Caenorhabditis elegans
Strain:Bristol N2
100 Mb 19,000 Washington University and the Sanger
Institute
199
Drosophila melanogaster 165 Mb 13,600 Celera, UC Berkeley, Baylor College of
Medicine, European DGP
2000
Anopheles gambiae
Strain: PEST
278 Mb 13,683 Celera Genomics and Genoscope 2002
Takifugu rubripes 390 Mb 22–29,000 International Fugu Genome
Consortium
2002
Homo sapiens 3.2 Gb 18,826 (CCDS
consortium)
Human Genome Project
Consortium and Celera Genomics
Draft 2001
Complete 2006
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13. Viruses
Organism Genome size
(base pairs)
Note
Porcine circovirus type 1 1,759 1.8kb Smallest viruses replicating
autonomously in eukaryotic cells.
Bacteriophage MS2 3,569 3.5kb First sequenced RNA-genome
SV40 5,224 5.2kb
Phage Φ-X174 5,386 5.4kb First sequenced DNA-genome
HIV 9,749 9.7kb
Phage λ 48,502 48.5kb Often used as a vector for the
cloning of recombinant DNA.
Following are the sequenced genomes of viruses.
Genome Projects and development of our current information
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22. Genome Annotation
• http://www.repeatmasker.org/
• Types of repeats found in the genome, Regulatory elements, Homologues in other species,ORF etc.
Genome Projects and development of our current information library 22
Name Can be Used For
GeneMark Archaea, Metagenomes ,Eukaryotes,Viruses, Phages, Plasmids, EST and cDNA
GeneHacker Microbial genomes
GeneWalker Human
HMMgene (v. 1.1) vertebrate and C. elegans
Chemgenome2.0 Prokaryotes
Softberry Server Bacteria ,Viruses and eukaryotes
Gene ID Animal, Human, Plants fungus, Protists
GenScan Vertebrates, Arabidopsis, Maize
24. Current information library
1. The past few years have seen truly astounding progress in the development of high-throughput
sequencing techniques.
2. Initial determination of a draft of the human genome took ten years, at an estimated cost of $US 3
´ 109.
3. Now instruments exist that can produce 250 Gb per week.
4. Currently in Shenzhen – has 128 such instruments. Each can produce 25 ´ 109 bp per day! This
corresponds to one human genome at over 8X coverage. Running at full capacity, these resources
could produce 10 000 human genomes per year.
5. Moreover, there is no reason to think that the technical progress will not continue to accelerate.
6. Two aspects of a large-scale sequencing project.
7. One is the generation of the raw data. Most methods sequence long DNA molecules by
fragmenting them, and partially sequencing the pieces.
8. Both generation of raw data, and assembly, depend crucially on effective and efficient computer
programs.
25. References
1. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/genome-project
2. https://www.nature.com/articles/nbt1000_1049
3. https://benthamscience.com/journals/current-bioinformatics/library-recommendations/
4. https://www.studocu.com/en-us/document/california-institute-of-technology/human-
genetics-and-genomics/other/introduction-to-genomics-second-edition-arthur-m-
lesk/1587322/view
5. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1525323/
Any Question: Feel free to ask!
Genome Projects and development of our current information
library
25
