This chapter discusses physical and cognitive development in middle and late childhood. It covers topics like physical growth patterns, childhood obesity, motor skills development, health issues like asthma and psychological disorders. It also discusses Piaget's theory of concrete operations, information processing, language development, intelligence testing, educating gifted students, reading development and approaches to multicultural education.

1. Chapter 7 Physical & Cognitive Development in Middle & Late Childhood

2. Physical Development Height & Weight Changes Grows 2 – 3 inches by age 11 Gains 5 – 7 pounds per year Nutrition Level of nutrition affects lives Better nutrition affects peer relationships, emotional responding, activity level, & cognitive performance Cultural growth patterns Variations result from genetics Diet affects genetic, racial, & ethnic differences

3. Childhood Obesity 1 Child in 18 in U.S. is Obese Risk heart disease, diabetes, & becoming overweight adult Combination of Heredity & Environment Cultural predispositions but not a matter of genetics Poor diet, lack of exercise, & sedentary lifestyle Treating Obesity Need to learn to control eating habits Control the food at home

4. Motor Development Gross Motor Skills No reason to separate boys & girls in physical exercise until puberty Fine Motor Skills Increase in myelination produces finer abilities By 11 & 12 they can manipulate objects with almost the same dexterity as adults Social Benefits of Physical Competence Athletic competence = social desirability

5. Health Issues Asthma Chronic condition characterized by periodic attacks of wheezing, coughing, & shortness of breath 5% of children in U.S. are sufferers Triggered by: colds & flus, pollution, cigarette smoke, dust mites, animal dander & excretions, stress, & exercise Psychological Disorders 5% of preteens suffer from depression, 13% between 9 & 17 from anxiety disorders Children’s symptoms not the same as adults Treatment with drugs can be a problem

6. Sensory Difficulties Visual Impairment Blindness – visual acuity less than 20/200 with correction Partial blindness – visual acuity of 20/70 after correction Auditory Impairment 1% - 2% of school age children are affected The adaptation depends on the child’s age Auditory difficulties are sometimes accompanied by speech impairments

7. Speech Impairments In 3 – 5% of school age Includes: Stuttering, Aphasia, Dysarthria, Dysphasia, Impairment of Speech, Inability to Speak, Language Impairment, & Slurred Speech

8. AD/HD Characteristics: Inattention, impulsiveness, low-frustration tolerance, & a lot of inappropriate activity 3% - 7% of those under 18 are affected Drugs are short-term help Behavior therapy is a useful treatment along with drugs

9. Piaget & Concrete Operations Ages 7 – 12 Years Applies logical operations to concrete problems Uses cognitive & logical processes to answer questions; appearance isn’t an influence Decentering: the ability to take in many aspects of a situation at a time Still remains tied to the concrete & physical, not understanding the abstract or hypothetical or formal logic Criticisms of Piaget He was successful in describing cognitive development He underestimated children’s capabilities His theories don’t apply cross-culturally

10. Information Processing Limitations in Processing Size of memory is based on experience Memory The ability to encode, store, & retrieve information Encoding records information into a useable form Storing places it into a memory system Retrieving brings it into awareness Metamemory An understanding about the processes that underlie memory that emerges & improves during middle childhood Control Strategies Conscious, intentionally used tactics to improve cognitive processing Strategies for remembering include rehearsal, organization, linking, etc.

11. Vygotsky Zone of Proximal Development The level at which a child can almost understand or perform unassisted The focus of education should be on interaction with others Cooperative Learning Children work together in groups to achieve a common goal Reciprocal Teaching Technique to teach reading comprehension Skim a passage Question the central point Predict what will happen

12. Mechanics of Language Syntax Rules of how words & phrases can be combined to form sentences Pragmatics Rules governing the use of language to communicate in a social setting Metalinguistic Awareness The understanding of one’s own use of language Bilingualism Use of more than one language

13. I.Q. Tests Intelligence The capacity to understand the world, think rationally, & use resources effectively when challenged Mental Age The age of children taking the test who, on average, achieved that score Chronological Age Calendar age Intelligence Quotient Mental age divided by chronological age X 100

14. I.Q. Tests Binet’s Test Defined intelligence as that which his test measured Reasonable indicator of school performance Stanford-Binet Administered orally, taker progresses until unable to go on Wechsler Allows for identification of specific problems Kaufman Assessment Battery Allows the administrator to assist in the taker’s performance What IQ Tests Tell Reasonably good predicting school performance Not good at predicting income or future success

15. Alternative Views of Intelligence Fluid Intelligence The ability to deal with new problems & situations Crystallized Intelligence Accumulation of information, skills, reasoning, & memory learned through experience that can be applied to problem-solving Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Analytical, creative, & practical intelligences Gardner’s 8 Intelligences Musical, bodily-kinesthetic, logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, & naturalistic

16. Alternative Views of Intelligence Vygotsky Intelligence is assessed by looking at how well an individual performs alone and with help Sternberg Intelligence is seen in the way people store information & use it later 3 aspects of memory: Componential element: reflects how efficiently people can process & analyze information Experiential element: is the insightful use of component intelligence Contextual element: concerns ways of dealing with the demands of the environment Racial differences?

17. Full-Inclusion Classes Least Restrictive Environment The setting most similar to that of children without special needs for a full education Special needs children, by law, must be integrated into the regular classrooms & regular activities to the fullest extent possible Mainstreaming Integrating special needs children as much as possible into traditional educational system & provide them with a broad range of educational alternatives Full-Inclusion Integrating all students, even those with severe disabilities into regular classrooms

18. Below the Norm Mild Retardation Scores in the range of 50 or 55 to 70 on IQ tests Can reach the 3 rd to 6 th grade level About 90% of retardation Moderate Retardation Scores in the range of 35 or 40 to 50 or 55 on IQ tests Unable to progress beyond a 2 nd grade level 5% - 10% of the retarded Severe Retardation Scores range from around 20 or 25 to 35 or 40 on IQ tests A small number of retarded Profound Retardation Scores are below 20 or 24 on IQ tests Usually have little or no speech, poor motor control, but may learn basic self-care skills

19. Above the Norm Talented or Gifted Children who give evidence of high-performance capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, leadership, or specific academic fields & who require services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop such capabilities 3% - 5% of the population

20. Educating the Gifted Acceleration Programs Allows the gifted student to move ahead at their own pace, even if it means skipping to higher grades Acceleration programs are very effective Enrichment Programs Students are kept at their grade level but enrolled in special programs & given individual activities to allow greater depth of study on a given topic

21. Schooling Primary Schools in U.S. are a Right & Requirement Around the world 160 million children don’t have access to even a primary education Another 100 million don’t progress beyond the elementary level Close to 1 billion are illiterate Readiness for School Delay of entry isn’t necessarily an advantage Age may not be the critical factor

22. Teaching Reading Code-based Approach Reading should be taught by presenting the basic skills that underlie reading Phonics, & how letters & sounds are combined to make words Whole-language Approach Reading is a natural process, similar to the acquisition of oral language Learning to read is through the exposure to complete writing

23. Reading Stages Stage 0 (Birth – 1 st Grade Learning the essential prerequisites for reading Stage 1 (1 st & 2 nd Grade) Phonological recoding skills Stage 2 (2 nd & 3 rd Grade) Reading aloud with fluency Stage 3 (4 th – 8 th Grades) Reading becomes a way to learn Stage 4 Have the ability to read & process information reflecting multiple points of view

24. Home Schooling Reasons Some parents feel 1-on-1 attention is better, others are dissatisfied with schools, others it is religious or cultural Homeschooled generally do as well on standardized tests Acceptance into college seems no different than traditional schools Most who homeschool are more affluent Drawbacks: no social interaction, no experience with diverse population, most parents are not trained teachers

25. Multicultural Education Culture Set of behaviors, beliefs, values, & expectations shared by members of a particular society Subculture Groups within a larger culture Multicultural Education Form of education with the goal of helping minority students develop competence in the culture of the majority group while maintaining positive group identities built on their original cultures Cultural Assimilation Model The goal of education is to assimilate individual cultural identities into a unique, unified American culture Pluralistic Society Model American society is made up of diverse, coequal cultural groups that should preserve their individual cultural features Bicultural Identity Maintaining of an original cultural identity while integrating into the dominant culture