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2011 ch 4

The document summarizes key concepts about human sensory systems and perception. It discusses the main sensory systems of vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and balance. For each sense, it describes the basic structures and mechanisms involved in sensation and transduction. It also covers various visual illusions and perceptual phenomena like apparent motion, depth cues, and constancies that demonstrate how perception interprets and organizes sensory information.

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Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception
Sensory Systems: The First Step How Do Sensory Systems Function? Primary function of the senses is to act as biological transducers Sensation Perception Transduction
Vision Visible Spectrum Part of the electromagnetic spectrum to which the eyes respond Hue Saturation Brightness
Structure of the Eye
Vision: Rods and Cones Two types of photoreceptors located in retina Cones: Have 6.5 million Visual receptors for bright light (daylight) Color vision Rods: Have 100 million Visual receptors for dim light Black and white
Vision: Color Trichromatic Theory Color vision theory that states we have three cone types: red, green, blue Other colors produced by a combination of these Black and white produced by rods
Vision: Color Opponent Process Theory Color vision theory based on three opponent “systems”: Red/green; Blue/yellow; black/white Exciting one color in a pair (red) blocks the excitation in the other member of the pair (green) Afterimage: Visual sensation that remains after stimulus is removed
Hearing: Structure of the Ear Outer and Middle Ear Pinna: Visible, external part of the ear Tympanic Membrane: Eardrum Auditory Ossicles: Three small bones that vibrate link eardrum with the cochlea Malleus (hammer) Incus (anvil) Stapes (stirrup)
Hearing: Structure of the Ear Inner Ear Cochlea: Snail-shaped Organ of hearing Hair Cells: Receptor cells within cochlea Transduce vibrations into nerve impulses Once dead they are never replaced Organ of Corti: Center part of the cochlea containing hair cells, canals, and membranes
Hearing Sound Waves: Rhythmic movement of air molecules Rarefaction and compression Frequency Amplitude
Hearing: Detecting Higher and Lower Sounds Frequency Theory: As pitch rises, nerve impulses of the same frequency flow into the auditory nerve: also known as the “piano theory” Place Theory: Higher and lower tones excite specific areas of the cochlea: also known as the “microphone theory”
Hearing Loss Conduction Hearing Loss Poor transfer of sounds from tympanic membrane to the inner ear Compensate with hearing aid Sensorineural Hearing Loss Caused by damage to inner ear hair cells or auditory nerve Hearing aids useless; auditory messages cannot reach brain Cochlear Implant: Electronic device that stimulates auditory nerves Stimulation Deafness Damage caused by exposing hair cells to excessively loud sounds Typical at rock concerts By age 65, 40% of hair cells are gone
The Sense of Smell Olfaction A chemical sense The Route Nerve Endings to The Neurons to The Olfactory Bulb to The Limbic System The Lock & Key Theory 5 Odors Identified Floral, Camphoric, Musky, Minty, & Etherish
Taste Gustation A Chemical Sense The Route The Tongue to The Papillae to The Taste Buds to The Brain 5 Tastes Identified Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, & Umami
Grace and Balance The Kinesthetic Sense Keeps us informed about movement of body parts & their position in relation to each other. Muscle Movement, Posture, & Joints Information comes from stretch receptors, the tendons, & the internal organs.
Balance & Equilibrium Vestibular Sense The Vestibular Sense keeps us informed about balance & the position of our body in space. Hair cells in the inner ear bend in relation to the position & movement of the head giving information that the brain uses to help us maintain our balance and to sense changes in our movement through space.
The Tactile Senses Touch Skin receptors that make us aware of how & where we’re being touched. Pressure Receptors beneath the skin that make us aware of deeper touch. Temperature Receptors are found just beneath the skin to give the sensation of hot, cold, and warm.
The Tactile Senses P a i n Pain is adaptive & lets us know there’s something wrong. Pain receptors are located not just in the skin, but also in other parts of the body: muscles, joints, ligaments, teeth, & the internal organs. 2 Kinds of Pain Dull (slow) pain Long axons Sharp (fast) pain Short axons The Gate Control Theory of Pain There is a “neurological gate” in the spinal cord controlling the transmission of pain messages to the brain. Dull, throbbing pain is conducted through the gate by thinner & slower nerve fibers that carry signals for touch & temperature. Faster, thicker nerve fibers cause a bottleneck at the gate, blocking the passage of other messages.
Perceiving Reality Apparent Motion The Autokinetic Effect Apparent motion of a single light in total darkness. The Phi Phenomenon A series of blinking lights. The Stroboscopic Effect The “jerky” effect of a strobe light blinking in total darkness with movement.
Perceptual Organizational Principles Figure – Ground The simplest type of organizational principle Reversible Figure-Ground Unclear Figure-Ground Illusory Figure-Ground
Filling in the Gaps Closure The tendency to perceive an object or shape even when the form isn’t complete.
Perceiving Depth & Distance Similarity Similar objects are perceived as being together. Proximity Stimuli close together are perceived as being together.
Perceiving Depth & Distance Interposition Something is placed between the eye and the object. Texture Gradient Textured objects further away look smooth.
Perceiving Depth & Distance Linear Perspective Convergence of lines or the vanishing point in art. Aerial Perspective Close objects appear clearer than those farther away.
Perceiving Depth & Distance Motion Paralax Closer objects seem to move faster than those farther away when in motion. Light and Shadow Gives objects the appearance of three dimensions.
Perceiving Depth & Distance Relative Size The smaller the image of an object is on the retina, the farther away it seems. Relative Height Objects higher in the visual field are perceived as farther away.
The Optic Chiasm Point in the temporal area of the brain where the optic nerve crosses over from left to right. This is where stereo vision is created.
Stereoscopic Vision Seeing the world in Three-Dimensions Binocular cues: Retinal Disparity The difference between the two eyes Convergence The eyes focusing close up Stereoscopic Vision Seeing depth naturally
Perceptual Constancies Size Constancy Objects continue to remain the same size no matter how distant. Shape Constancy Objects remain the same shape even if the image on the retina shows a different shape. Color Constancy Influenced by lighting (artificial, colored, or natural).
Visual Illusions
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Subliminal Perception Stimulation below the threshold of conscious awareness. There is no evidence to support subliminal perception occurring. Reverse Masking There is no evidence to support reverse masking causes subliminal or any other stimulation.
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