This chapter discusses physical, cognitive, and language development in early childhood. It covers topics like physical growth differences between boys and girls, brain development including lateralization and gender differences, motor skill development, handedness, nutrition, childhood injuries, Piaget's stages of cognitive development, Vygotsky's theories on social learning and scaffolding, the development of theory of mind, the benefits of early childhood education and TV programs like Sesame Street, and the effects of television viewing on children.

1. CHAPTER 5 Physical & Cognitive Development in Early Childhood

2. Physical Growth Individual Differences Average differences in height & weight between boys & girls begins to increase Boys start becoming taller Differences in economically deprived countries v. developed countries Better nutrition & health care Difference in U.S. between advantaged & disadvantaged children

3. Growth of the Brain Fastest Growing Part of the Body By age 5, the brain is 90% of adult size Increase in growth due to increase in the number of interconnections It allows for more complex communications between neurons Increase in the amount of myelin Increase in the size of the corpus callosum

4. Brain Lateralization Each Hemisphere has Certain Functions Each hemisphere processes information slightly differently The left processes sequentially The right processes holistically

5. Boy Brain / Girl Brain Male & Female Brains are Predisposed to Function Slightly Differently Girls & Boys Show Some Hemispheric Differences Gender & Cultural Relations to Brain Structure Some Cultures Process Information Related to Vocal Sounds Differently Increases in Myelin May Be Related to Growing Cognitive Capacities as well as Memory Improvements Boys & Girls have Differences in Lower Body Reflexes Boys & Girls Process Auditory Information Differently Boys show greater Specialization of Left Hemisphere Language Girls Language Capabilities is More Evenly Distributed Between Hemispheres Girls Language Development is Faster than Boys

6. Motor Development Gross Motor Skills Advances in gross motor skills related to brain development & myelination of neurons in areas related to balance & coordination Gender Differences Boys overall motor activity level higher than girls: jump higher & throw a ball better Girls better in coordination of arms & legs & balancing & coordinated exercises Fine Motor Skills Develop with gross motor skills but require practice

7. Handedness Preference by the End of Preschool By age 5 there’s a clear tendency to use one hand over the other Today children are not forced to use the right hand

8. Nutrition Eating the Right Foods Growth rate is slower than in infancy Need less food to maintain growth Encouraging the child to eat more than they seem to want can lead to obesity (more than 20% above average weight for height) Childhood obesity increased significantly since the mid-1980s

9. Injuries Accidents are the Greatest Risk Due to level of physical activity Boys are more active than girls & take more risks More accidents in poorer areas Lead Poisoning Tiny amounts of lead can be very harmful Linked to lower IQ, verbal & auditory problems, hyperactivity & distractibility

10. Piaget’s Preoperational Thinking The Use of Symbolic Thought, Mental Reasoning,& Concepts Symbolic Function The ability to use a mental symbol, a word, or object to stand for or represent something not present Relation between language & thought Symbolic function is the basis of sophisticated language use in the Preoperational Stage Language & thinking are interconnected Use of language allows the child to think beyond the present to the future Language = thought or thought = language?

11. Centration & Conservation Centration The process of concentrating on one limited aspect of a stimulus ignoring other aspects Preschooler’s focus is on the superficial, obvious elements Conservation Knowledge that quantity is unrelated to physical appearance or arrangement of objects Centration prevents focusing on the relevant features of a situation

12. Preoperational Thinking Egocentricism Thinking that doesn’t take into account others’ viewpoints Takes 2 forms: 1. Lack of awareness that others see things form a different perspective 2. Failure to realize that others may hold thoughts, feelings, & points of view different from your own Seen in talking to oneself in the presence of others or ignoring what others are saying

13. Preoperational Thinking Intuitive Thought Preschooler’s primitive reasoning & keen acquisition of knowledge about the world They begin to understand the concept of functionality (actions, events, & outcomes are related to each other in fixed patterns) They begin to show awareness of the idea of identity (certain things stay the same regardless of changes in shape, size, & appearance Both are important to understand conservation Evaluating Piaget Children have the innate ability to count Cognitive skills develop in a more continuous manner than stage theories imply Developmental changes are more quantitative than qualitative as Piaget claims

14. Memory Autobiographical Memory Memory of particular events on one’s life Unless the event is meaningful or vivid, it is likely not to be remembered Cultural factors affect memory Autobiographical memories fade & inaccurately recalled Scripts: broad representations in memory of events & the order in which they occurred Frequent events melded into scripts

15. Vygotsky Definitions Zone of Proximal Development Level at which a child can almost, but not fully, perform a task independently, but can do it with assistance from someone more competent Scaffolding The support for learning & problem solving that encourages independence & growth Cultural Tools Physical items & intellectual & conceptual framework for solving problems

16. Vygotsky Cognitive Development & Social Interaction Tied Together Children are apprentices, learning from adult & peer mentors Cultural & social factors involved in the learning process Children’s cognitive development is dependent on the interaction with others There are differences in how some societies support learning for boys & girls Cultural tools provide a structure that can be used to help children define & solve problems as well as an intellectual POV that encourages cognitive development

17. Language & Thought Syntax Combining words & phrases to form sentences Fast Mapping New words are associated with their meaning only after a brief encounter Grammar Rules that determine how thoughts can be expressed Private Speech Speech spoken & directed to oneself Pragmatics Aspect of language relating to communicating effectively & appropriately with others Social Speech Speech directed toward another & meant to be understood by that person

18. Theory of Mind Develops an intuitive understanding of the link between mind & behavior Moves through 3 phases: Earliest phase (approx. 2 years) - aware of desires & speaks of wants & likes; by age 2 children understand people have desires & desires can cause behavior Mid-phase (approx. 3 years) - distinguishes the mental world from the physical world but still emphasize desire in explaining others’ actions Late phase (approx. 4 years) - understands that behavior is based on beliefs about the world, even when those beliefs are wrong; realizes that people not only have thoughts & beliefs, but those thoughts & beliefs are crucial to explaining why people do things

19. Early Childhood Education Involvement in Some Form of Education Before Formal Schooling is Beneficial Varieties of early education: Child-care centers Preschools School childcare

20. Sesame Street Significantly Higher Vocabularies Significantly Higher Scores on Measures of Verbal & Math Tend to be Better Readers Spending More Time Reading

21. Effectiveness of Childcare More Verbal Fluency Memory & Comprehension Advantages Higher IQ Scores More Self-confidence More Independent More Socially Knowledgeable

22. Television & its Influences Aggressive Behavior Frequent exposure to TV violence causes children to be more aggressive Violent video games causes similar behaviors Stereotyping TV viewing causes children to adopt many stereotypes that dominate TV programming Consumer Behavior Commercials are effect with children Children grow to like products advertised on TV Urge parents to buy products

23. Television & its Influences Prosocial Behavior TV viewing of prosocial behavior influenced children Factors that restrict porsocial behavior: 1. Prosocial behavior portrayed much less frequently than aggressive behaviors 2. Prosocial programs must compete w/other kinds of programs & other activities child does Influences on Cognition Children watching Sesame Street were more proficient in certain academic skills & adjusted to school more readily Higher vocabularies, better math & prereading skills, better prepared for school, frequently improve their academic skills & develop more positive attitudes

24. Television & its Influences Criticism of TV Children watching a lot of TV have short attention spans & have difficulty concentrating due to brief segments of programming Children become passive, lazy thinkers Neither criticism is backed by research TV doesn’t harm children’s attention span No link between amount of TV viewing and creativity No evidence that TV watching has harmful effects What parents need to do Ways to regulate child’s TV viewing Children must have absolute, enforced rules re: the amount of TV & the types of programs they can watch Children must know what they want to watch before they turn on TV & not watch just because they’re bored Parents should watch TV with children & discuss the programs Parents should be good TV viewers themselves not watching Inappropriate programs with children present