As per John M. Last (1988) Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to the control of health problems.
This PPT discusses
Basics measurements in epidemiology
Basics requirements of measurements
Tools of measurements
Measures of morbidity
Measures of disability
Measures of mortality
As per John M. Last (1988) Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to the control of health problems.
This PPT discusses
Basics measurements in epidemiology
Basics requirements of measurements
Tools of measurements
Measures of morbidity
Measures of disability
Measures of mortality
What is Cohort?
Indication and Elements of Cohort Study.
What is Relative risk and Attributable risk, and its interpretation?
Advantages & disadvantages of Cohort study.
Difference between Case control & Cohort study.
What is Cohort?
Indication and Elements of Cohort Study.
What is Relative risk and Attributable risk, and its interpretation?
Advantages & disadvantages of Cohort study.
Difference between Case control & Cohort study.
Introduction to Epidemiology
History of Epidemiology.
Definition of Epidemiology and its components.
Epidemiological Basic concepts.
Aims of Epidemiology.
Ten Uses of Epidemiology.
Scope or The Areas of Application .
Types of Epidemiological Studies.
What are the five critical elements ensuring the program planning success?
1) Mobilizing the community
2) Collecting and organizing data
3) Choosing health priorities
4) Developing a comprehensive intervention plan
5) Evaluating PATCH
The four Multiple Determinants of Chronic Disease?
1) Behavioral determinants
2) Healthcare determinants
3) Environmental determinants
4) Social determinants.
What is Epidemiology?
distribution and determinants of health-related states in specified populations, and the application of this study to the control of health problems
compare between person analyzes and Time analyses?
Person: distribution of a disease or condition varies in the population according to personal characteristics, such as age, race, or gender
Time: surveillance systems monitor the trends in occurrence of chronic disease rates through utilizing the epidemic curve to detect outbreaks
4 elements for Health Believe Model
1) Perceived suscssibility
2) Perceived severity
3) Perceived benefits
4) Perceived barrier
5) Cuss action
6) Self-efficacy
cause of tobacco use?
1) Societal and individual factors
2) Advertising and promotion (tobacco” Safer)
3) Access
4) Social norms
5) Individual psychosocial factors
6) Continued tobacco use
7) Inadequate understanding
8) Lower price
elements of a chronic disease surveillance system:
1) Notifiable Disease Systems
2) statistics vital
3) Sentinel Surveillance
4) Chronic Disease Registries
5) Health Surveys
6) Administrative Data Collection Systems
7) Census Data
Periodontal disease is a widely prevalent disease worldwide which often gets unnoticed or it often ignored due to its slowly progressive nature. It is of concern since it can cause irrepairable damage to tooth supporting structures if not early diagnosed or treated.
CNS Introduction, Neurons, Type of Neurons and functions, Neuroglia and types, Receptors and their types, Synapse, Neurotransmitters and their functions
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
2. 2
Introduction
The term epidemiology is derived from the Greek word
epidemic.
Epi means-Among, upon,
Demos means study population or people and
Logos means scientific study.
So
It is the scientific study of the disease pattern in human
population.
In broad sense, it is the study of effects of multiple factors
on human health.
It is multidisciplinary subject involving those of the
physician, Biologists, Public Health experts, Health
educators etc.
3. 3
The science of the mass phenomena of infectious
diseases or the natural history of infectious diseases.
(Frost 1927)
The science of infective diseases, their prime causes,
propagation and prevention. (Stallbrass 1931)
4. 4
The widely accepted definition of epidemiology is:
“The study of the distribution and determinants of
health related states or events in specified
population and the application of the study to
control of health problems”
(J.M. Last 1988)
5. Aims of Epidemiology
According to the International Epidemiological Association
(IEA) Epidemiology has three main aims.
To describe and analyze diseases occurrence and
distribution in human populations;
To identify etiological factors in the pathogenesis of
diseases;
To provide the data essential to the planning,
implementation and evaluation of services for the
prevention, control and treatment of diseases and to the
setting up of priorities among those services.
6. 6
Components of Epidemiology
Disease frequency:
The core characteristics of epidemiology are to
measure the frequency of diseases, disability or death
in a specified population. it is always as the rate, ratio
and proportion.
Much of the subject of epidemiology are matter of
measurement of diseases and health related events
falls in the domain of biostatistics, which is a basic
tool of epidemiology. This helps in development of
strategies for prevention or control of health related
problems.
7. 7
Distribution of Diseases:
Health events occur in pattern in community and
this pattern varies from community to community.
Also health events or diseases condition affect
population at various age groups, different genders,
different subgroups of population.
Distributions of events are based on time, place, and
person. We can analyze whether any increases or
decreases occur for a particular condition.
Epidemiology addresses itself to a study of these
variations or patterns, which may suggest or lead to
measure to control or prevent the diseases. An
important outcome of this study is formulation of
etiological hypothesis.
8. 8
Determinants of Diseases:
Epidemiology helps in identifying the causative
agent or the risk/predisposing factors of diseases.
This is one of the real uses of epidemiology.
Understanding the factors leading to any programs
for the control of those diseases.
9. How to study the disease in the
community?
Clinical Method: Studied subject is a patient
(individual person) and decision on his/her
treatment requires a clinical diagnosis (based
on the history, examination, laboratory tests,
etc.).
12. Prevalence vs. Incidence
Prevalence: frequency of existing cases
Incidence: frequency of new cases
New cases are called incident cases.
Existing cases are called prevalent cases.
12
13. PREVALENCE RATE
No. of people with disease at specified time/No. of
people in Population at risk at specified time
x 1000
Prevalence rate is often used to measure the occurrence of
chronic (long lasting) diseases or diseases with gradual
onset (such as diabetes, sclerosis multiplex, tuberculosis
etc.)
14. Ex: The Percentage of under five children
with acute malnutrition in Africa in March
2008
15. INCIDENCE RATE
Incidence Rate is defined as the no. of NEW cases occurring
in a defined population during a specified time period.
No. of new cases of specific disease during a given time
period/ Population at risk during that period
X 1000
Incidence rate is often used to measure the occurrence of
acute (short-term) diseases or diseases with exactly defined
onset (such as acute intestinal diseases, poisonings, car
accidents, strokes, etc.)
15
16. For example , if there had been 500 new cases of
an illness in a population of 30,000 in a year, the
incidence rate would be :
500/30000 x 1000 = 16.7
Incidence rate refers to only new cases.
18. ATTACK RATE
The attack rate, or case rate, refers to the
cumulative incidence of infection over a period
of time. This is typically used during an
epidemic. The time period may not be indicated,
but would typically refer to the period of the
outbreak.
19. Ex:
Outbreak of cholera in country X in March 1999
Number of cases = 490,
Population at risk = 18,600
Then the Attack rate = 2.6%
20. CASE FATALITY RATE
Measure of the severity of a disease which defined as the
proportion of cases of a specified disease or condition
which are fatal within a specified time
= no. of death from a disease in a specified period
no. of diagnosed cases of disease in same period
X 100
20
21. The proportion of people with a specified condition who
die within a specified time. The time frame is typically
the period during which the patient is sick from the
disease. This works for an infectious disease but can be
problematic for a chronic disease like a cancer that may
remit for a period and then prove fatal after a
recurrence. In such instances we tend to speak of
mortality or survival rates rather than case fatality.
22. MORTALITY RATE
The number of deaths per thousand population per
year: in effect, the incidence of death in a
population. It can refer to all causes of death, or
can be a cause-specific mortality rate.
23. It expresses the no. of death due to a particular cause (or in
a specific age group) per 100 (or 1000) total deaths
No. of deaths from the specific disease in a year x 100
Total deaths from all causes in that year
24. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES
When we need to obtain more precise or detailed data, it
may be necessary to undertake a special survey.
Planning of the study:
Definition of the aim of the study and type of the
study.
Determination of the studied population (target
population)-to exactly define the attributes of
individuals belonging to this population (including
and excluding criteria)
25. Case definition – to define a tool for discrimination
positive and negative cases. This tool (method)
should be cheap, simple and readily available.
27. 27
Study Design
Study design is the arrangement of conditions for the
collection and analysis of data to provide the most accurate
answer to a question in the most economical way.
29. 29
Cross-sectional Studies
In this study design information about the status of an
individual with respect to presence/absence of exposure
and diseased is assessed at a point in time.
Cross-sectional studies are useful to generate a hypothesis
rather that to test it
For factors that remain unaltered overtime (e.g. gender,
race, blood group) it can produce a valid association
30. 30
Cross-Sectional…
Comparison groups are formed after data collection
The object of comparison are prevalence of exposure or
disease
Groups are compared either by exposure or disease status
Cross-sectional studies are also called prevalence studies
31. 31
Cross-sectional…
Types of cross-sectional studies
1. Single cross-sectional studies
Determine single proportion/mean in a single
population at a time
2. Comparative cross-sectional studies
Determine two proportions/means in two
populations at a time
34. 34
Case-Control Studies
Subjects are selected with respect to the presence (cases)
or absence (controls) of disease, and then inquiries are
made about past exposure
We compare diseased (cases) and non-diseased (controls)
to find out the level of exposure
Exposure status is traced backward in time
35. 35
Case-control…
Steps in conducting case-control studies:
Define who is a case
Establish strict diagnostic criteria
All who fulfil the criteria will be “case population
Those who don’t fulfil will be “control population”
36. Individuals are divided according to presence of the
disease: studied group (disease present, e.g. lung
cancer) and control group (disease absent, e.g.
without lung cancer). Occurrence of suspected risk
factor in history is compared in both groups (e.g.
proportion of smokers) (studies focused from
consequence to cause)
37. 37
Case-control…
Advantages of case-control studies
Optimal for evaluation of rare diseases
Examines multiple factors of a single disease
Quick and inexpensive
Relatively simple to carry out
Guarantee the number of people with disease
38. 38
Cohort studies
Subjects are selected by exposure and followed to see
development of disease
Two types of cohort studies
1. Prospective (classical)
Outcome hasn’t occurred at the beginning of the
study
It is the commonest and more reliable
39. 39
Cohort…
2. Retrospective (Historical)
Both exposure and disease has occurred before the
beginning of the study
Faster and more economical
Data usually incomplete and in accurate
40. 40
Cohort…
Steps in conducting cohort studies
Define exposure
Select exposed group
Select non-exposed group
Follow and collect data on outcome
Compare outcome b/w exposed & non-exposed
41. 41
Cohort…
Advantages of cohort studies
Valuable when exposure is rare
Examines multiple effects of a single exposures
Allow direct measurement of risk
43. 43
Experimental studies
Individuals are allocated in to treatment and control
groups by the investigator. If properly done,
experimental studies can produce high quality data.
They are the gold standard study design.
They included studied group (intervention, e.g.
vaccinated children), control group (without
intervention, e.g. non-vaccinated children)
44. 44
Experimental…
The quality of “Gold standard” in experimental
studies can be achieved through
Randomization
Blinding
Placebo
46. 46
Experimental…
Single blinding: Study subjects don’t know to which
group they belong
Double blinding: Physicians also don’t know to which
group study subjects belong
Triple blinding: Data collectors also don’t know
allocation status
Advantage: Avoids observation bias
47. 47
Experimental…
Placebo: An inert material indistinguishable from active
treatment
Placebo effect: Tendency to report favourable response
regardless of physiological efficacy
Placebo is used as blinding procedure
48. 48
Screening
Screening refers to the presumptive identification of a
disease/defect by application of tests, examinations or
other procedures in apparently healthy people.
Screening is an initial examination
Screening is not intended to be diagnostic
49. 49
Aims of screening program
Changing disease progression efficiently
Altering natural course of disease
Protecting society from contagious disease
Allocating resources rationally
Selection of healthy people for job
Studying the natural history of disease
50. 50
Criteria for establishing screening
program
The problem should have public health importance
There should be accepted treatment for positives
Diagnostic & treatment facilities should be available
Recognized latent stage in the time course
Test is acceptable, reliable & valid
Natural history of the disease should be well
understood
Case-finding is economical and continuous
51. 51
In general, a screening test should be
Reliable & valid
Sensitive & specific
Simple & acceptable
Effective & efficient