Folds
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Folds are bends in rock layers caused by compressive forces. There are two main types of folds: anticlines, where the rock layers bend upwards into an arch, and synclines, where the layers bend downwards into a trough. Folds can be symmetrical, with equal halves on either side of the axial plane, or asymmetrical, with unequal halves. They can also be open or closed depending on the degree of bending, and occur as similar or parallel folds based on thickness and orientation of the rock layers.
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Structural geology
This presentation is based on structural geology.. and it is for the people who are related to civil engineering..
Structural Geology
This powerpoint presentation gives some basic information regarding structural geology,folds,joints,faults etc.
Folds
This lecture includes the fold terminology and classification of folds based of different criteria.
Classification of folds based on:
Direction of closing
Attitude of axial surface
Size of interlimb angle
Profile
Ramsay Classification of folds
Structural Geology Folds
Structural geology is the study of rock structures and deformations within the Earth's crust. There are several types of rock structures that provide evidence of past deformation, including folds, faults, joints, and foliations. Folds occur when rock layers are bent, and there are different types such as anticlines, synclines, tight folds, overfolds, recumbent folds, and nappe folds. Understanding rock structures provides insight into the stress fields and tectonic processes that shaped the geological past.
Fault
Faults occur when rocks fracture and move relative to each other due to compressional or tensional forces. There are several types of faults classified based on the direction of displacement:
- Dip-slip faults include normal faults, where the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall, and reverse/thrust faults where the hanging wall moves up.
- Strike-slip faults involve horizontal movement parallel to the fault plane in either a left-lateral or right-lateral direction.
- Oblique faults involve both dip-slip and strike-slip displacement components.
A seminar on ramsay classification of fold
This document summarizes a seminar on Ramsay classification of folds and folding mechanisms. It introduces Ramsay fold classification, which divides folds into three classes based on criteria like dip isogon patterns and curvature. Class 1 folds have convergent dip isogons and greater inner curvature. Mechanisms of folding discussed include buckling, which can form Class 1b folds of constant thickness, and bending due to intrusion or between boudins. Applications of the classification include hydrocarbon and salt dome exploration.
Structural geology
The document discusses key concepts in structural geology including primary and secondary rock structures, outcrops, dip, strike, true and apparent dip, folds, and faults. It defines structural geology as dealing with rock structures, their classification, development mechanisms and causes. Folds are described as undulations in rock layers caused by forces. The main parts of folds are defined as the limbs, hinge, axis, plunge, crest and trough. Common fold types including anticlines and synclines are also outlined. Finally, the document categorizes faults based on the relative movement of the disrupted rock blocks.
Folds and types
short and simple description about fold and faults.how they occur and came into exist.
types of folds and its explanation.with figures and diagrams
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Structural geology
This presentation is based on structural geology.. and it is for the people who are related to civil engineering..
Structural Geology
This powerpoint presentation gives some basic information regarding structural geology,folds,joints,faults etc.
Folds
This lecture includes the fold terminology and classification of folds based of different criteria.
Classification of folds based on:
Direction of closing
Attitude of axial surface
Size of interlimb angle
Profile
Ramsay Classification of folds
Structural Geology Folds
Structural geology is the study of rock structures and deformations within the Earth's crust. There are several types of rock structures that provide evidence of past deformation, including folds, faults, joints, and foliations. Folds occur when rock layers are bent, and there are different types such as anticlines, synclines, tight folds, overfolds, recumbent folds, and nappe folds. Understanding rock structures provides insight into the stress fields and tectonic processes that shaped the geological past.
Fault
Faults occur when rocks fracture and move relative to each other due to compressional or tensional forces. There are several types of faults classified based on the direction of displacement:
- Dip-slip faults include normal faults, where the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall, and reverse/thrust faults where the hanging wall moves up.
- Strike-slip faults involve horizontal movement parallel to the fault plane in either a left-lateral or right-lateral direction.
- Oblique faults involve both dip-slip and strike-slip displacement components.
A seminar on ramsay classification of fold
This document summarizes a seminar on Ramsay classification of folds and folding mechanisms. It introduces Ramsay fold classification, which divides folds into three classes based on criteria like dip isogon patterns and curvature. Class 1 folds have convergent dip isogons and greater inner curvature. Mechanisms of folding discussed include buckling, which can form Class 1b folds of constant thickness, and bending due to intrusion or between boudins. Applications of the classification include hydrocarbon and salt dome exploration.
Structural geology
The document discusses key concepts in structural geology including primary and secondary rock structures, outcrops, dip, strike, true and apparent dip, folds, and faults. It defines structural geology as dealing with rock structures, their classification, development mechanisms and causes. Folds are described as undulations in rock layers caused by forces. The main parts of folds are defined as the limbs, hinge, axis, plunge, crest and trough. Common fold types including anticlines and synclines are also outlined. Finally, the document categorizes faults based on the relative movement of the disrupted rock blocks.
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short and simple description about fold and faults.how they occur and came into exist.
types of folds and its explanation.with figures and diagrams
Geometric classification of folds
This document discusses the geometric classification of folds in geology. It defines what folds are and describes their key features like hinge lines, axial planes, limbs, and amplitudes. It then categorizes folds based on various criteria such as the sense of curvature (anticline, syncline), direction of younging (anticlinal, synclinal), symmetry (symmetrical, asymmetrical), nature of the hinge line (cylindrical, non-cylindrical), plunge, interlimb angle, thickness, orientation, and shape of the hinge. It provides examples of different fold types and discusses parasitic folds. The document serves as a comprehensive overview of how folds are classified geometrically in structural geology.
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
This document provides an overview of structural geology, including different types of geological structures such as folds, faults, and joints. It defines key terms used in structural geology like strike, dip, limbs, and plunge. It describes different types of folds like anticlines and synclines. It also explains faults, describing components like the hanging wall and footwall, and types of faults including normal, reverse, thrust, strike-slip, and oblique slip faults. Finally, it briefly discusses joints and types like columnar and sheet joints. The study of structural geology is important for understanding rock deformation and identifying structures that can form traps for resources like oil and gas.
Description and classification of folds
This document provides an overview of structural geology and folds. It defines structural geology as the study of geological structures like folds, faults, unconformities and joints. Folds occur when rock layers bend due to compressive forces, and come in different forms like anticlines and synclines. The key parts of a fold are identified as the crest, trough, limbs, hinge and axial plane. Folds can be classified based on their symmetry, plunge, bed thickness changes and other characteristics. Examples of different fold types include symmetrical, asymmetrical, isoclinal, overturned and plunging folds. Considerations for engineering projects involving folded rock formations are also outlined.
Primary structures geology
This document defines and describes various primary structures found in sedimentary and igneous rocks. Primary structures form during or shortly after the formation of a rock and include features like bedding, cross-bedding, graded bedding, ripple marks, mud cracks, and unconformities in sedimentary rocks. In igneous rocks, primary structures include intrusive features like dykes, sills, batholiths, and extrusive features like pillow lava, ropy lava, and pyroclastic flows. Secondary structures form after the rocks solidify due to tectonic forces and include folds, faults, joints, and lineations.
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This document summarizes the different types of rock folds, including their key parts and classifications. There are 11 types of folds described: anticline, syncline, symmetrical, asymmetrical, monocline, plunging, isocline, overturned, recumbent, zigzag, and dome folds. Folds occur when horizontal rock layers bend upward or downward due to compressive forces. They are classified as either anticlines, which bend upward, or synclines, which bend downward. Key parts of folds include the axis, axial plane, limbs, hinge line, and hinge zone.
Joints
This document discusses joints, which are fractures in rock where there has been no displacement of the rock on either side. It classifies joints based on their geometry and genesis. Geometrically, joints are classified as strike joints, dip joints, or oblique joints based on their orientation relative to the bedding of the rock. Genetically, joints are classified as tension joints, which form perpendicular to tensional forces, or shear joints, which form due to shearing stresses during folding or faulting. Examples of tension joints include columnar joints, mud cracks, sheet joints, and mural joints. The document discusses the formation and features of these different joint types and their presence in igneous, sedimentary, and metam
Folds and foldings
What are folds?
•Parts of the folds
•Classification of folds
•Classification on the basis of axial planes
•Classification on the basis of curvature(by Ramsay)
•Classification on the basis of plunge
•Engineering considerations
Modes of deformation of rocks presentation
Rocks can deform in two main ways: brittle deformation and ductile deformation. Brittle deformation occurs near the surface where pressures and temperatures are low, causing rocks to fracture. Ductile deformation occurs at depth, where high pressures and temperatures cause permanent shape changes without fracturing. The type of deformation depends on factors like pressure, temperature, strain rate, and rock composition. Hard rocks under low pressure and temperature typically undergo brittle deformation, while soft rocks at depth experience ductile deformation.
Lineation and their types
This document defines and describes different types of lineations found in deformed rocks, which are linear structures that occur repetitively. It discusses three main types of lineations: form lineations related to geological structures like folds, boudins, and slickenlines; surface lineations defined by intersections or slip; and mineral lineations caused by the preferred orientation of mineral grains or aggregates. Specific examples of each lineation type are provided, and the usefulness of lineations in structural analysis to determine strain and slip directions is explained.
UNCONFORMITY BY DHARMESH
This document defines and describes different types of unconformities in geology. It begins by defining an unconformity as a break or gap in the geological record representing a period of erosion or non-deposition. It then describes the major types of unconformities, including angular, disconformity, non-conformity, and local unconformities. Finally, it outlines several ways that unconformities provide significance, such as indicating time intervals missing from the geological record, structural discordances between rock layers, evidence of past topography, and signs of weathering at the contact surface.
Geological Faults
Faults are fractures with movement parallel to their plane, usually caused by seismic activity. Understanding faults is important for engineering structures. There are three main types of faults - normal, thrust, and strike-slip. Normal faults involve the hanging wall moving down relative to the footwall. Thrust faults involve the hanging wall moving up. Strike-slip faults involve lateral movement along the fault plane. Faults can be identified by features like slickensides, mineral growth, and offset stratigraphy. Fault classification helps understand mountain building and plate tectonics. Careful analysis of faults is necessary for safe construction near fault lines.
Isostasy
This document discusses the concept of isostasy, which refers to the equilibrium between the continental and oceanic crust due to gravitational forces. It was first defined in 1889 by American geologist Clarence Dutton. The main points are that the continental crust must be composed of lighter materials than the ocean floor to remain in equilibrium. Also, wherever the continental crust is thinner under the oceans, it extends below the ocean floor to maintain equilibrium. Early evidence for isostasy came from Pierre Bouguer's 1735 expedition to the Andes mountains, where he observed smaller than expected gravitational attraction that indicated compensation of the mountains' mass.
Joints and unconformity
What are joints?
•Terminology related to joints
•Classification
•Engineering considerations
Strike joints
Dip joint:
Oblique joint:
bedding joints.
Tension joints:
Shear joints:
Compression joints:
Structural Geology & Stress
Structural geology is the study of the architecture and geometry of the Earth's crust and the processes that have shaped it. It involves analyzing how rock bodies deform in response to tectonic stresses. Structural analysis generally involves descriptive, kinematic, and dynamic analysis. Descriptive analysis describes rock structures like folds and faults. Kinematic analysis evaluates strain and changes in shape and orientation of rocks. Dynamic analysis reconstructs the stresses that caused rock deformation and failure. Stresses in rocks can be tensile, compressive, or shear stresses. Stress is analyzed using concepts like the stress tensor, Mohr's circle diagrams, and the orientation of maximum shear stresses. The main sources of stress that drive deformation are the motions of tectonic
Brunton compas
The Brunton compass is a precision compass used by geologists, archaeologists, engineers, and surveyors to make accurate angle and degree measurements in the field. Unlike most modern compasses, it uses magnetic damping rather than fluid to dampen needle oscillation. Key components include the box, sighting arm, and lid, which house the needle, levels, scale, and damping mechanism. Users line up targets in the mirror and take readings of strike and dip to determine the attitude of linear and planar geological objects. The magnetic declination can also be set on the compass for mapping purposes.
Fault and its classification
This document provides an overview of fault classification. It begins with definitions of fault geometry, including fault plane, dip, strike, hanging wall, footwall, throw, and rake. Faults can be classified geometrically based on attributes like rake, attitude relative to adjacent rocks, pattern, dip angle, and apparent movement. Major geometric types include strike-slip, dip-slip, and diagonal-slip faults. Genetic classification considers the relative movement, and identifies normal, reverse, thrust, strike-slip, and other fault types. Major faults in India are described along with the distribution of faults globally. In conclusion, the author emphasizes the geological and economic importance of studying faults, as well as their relevance to engineering and
Foliation
This document defines and classifies different types of foliation in metamorphic rocks. It begins by defining foliation as a planar or curvi-planar fabric formed in metamorphic rocks. Foliations are classified genetically as primary, secondary, or inherited, and morphologically as spaced, continuous, or disjunctive. Key types of secondary foliation include cleavage, schistosity, slip cleavage, and shear cleavage. Foliations provide important information about the tectonic and metamorphic evolution of an area and help determine the geometry of folding. Different foliation types reflect variations in lithology and temperature during metamorphism and deformation.
Primary structures of sedimentary and igneous rocks
Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional of the rock units with respect to their deformational histories, Structure is spatial and geometrical configuration of rock components.
Structures are classified into two types:
Primary structures.
Secondary structures
Primary structures
Structures that form during deposition or crystallization of the rock, are the result of two processes:
Settling of solid particles from fluid medium in which they have been suspended, in most of the sedimentary rocks.
Crystallization of mineral grains from a liquid in which they have been dissolved as in igneous rocks.
Attitude of beds
1. Strike is the direction of the intersection of a geologic structure with a horizontal plane, while dip is the angle of inclination from horizontal.
2. A Brunton compass is used to measure the strike and dip of geologic structures in the field.
3. An outcrop is an exposure of a rock formation at the surface, and its pattern depends on factors like the structure's orientation and the topography.
265468739 shear-zones
1) Shear zones are tabular zones of higher strain than the surrounding rock, where ductile deformation occurs. Shear zones are thicker than fault zones.
2) Shear sense indicators in shear zones include asymmetric structures like S-C fabrics and mica fish, which indicate the direction of shear. Porphyroclast geometries also indicate shear sense.
3) Tension gashes and fractures that open parallel to the minimum stress axis can be used to determine the sense of shear in the zone. Their orientation and folding indicates whether shear was dextral or sinistral.
Structural Geology
This document provides an overview of structural geology concepts including folds, faults, strike, dip, and fold classification. It discusses that structural geology studies secondary rock structures like folds and faults, and defines key terms like outcrop, strike, and dip. It also categorizes and describes various types of folds such as anticlines, synclines, symmetrical/asymmetrical, plunging/non-plunging, open/closed, and domes and basins. The causes of folding from tectonic forces and effects on erosion are summarized. Faults are described as unfavorable for construction.
Structuralgeology
This document provides an overview of structural geology concepts including folds, faults, strike, dip, and fold classification. It discusses that structural geology studies secondary rock structures like folds and faults, and defines key terms like outcrop, strike, and dip. It also categorizes and describes various types of folds such as anticlines, synclines, symmetrical/asymmetrical, plunging/non-plunging, open/closed, and provides examples of overturned folds, chevron folds, and domes/basins. The document outlines causes of folding including tectonic forces and effects such as characteristic topographic features. It concludes with a description of faults and their significance for construction projects.
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Geometric classification of folds
This document discusses the geometric classification of folds in geology. It defines what folds are and describes their key features like hinge lines, axial planes, limbs, and amplitudes. It then categorizes folds based on various criteria such as the sense of curvature (anticline, syncline), direction of younging (anticlinal, synclinal), symmetry (symmetrical, asymmetrical), nature of the hinge line (cylindrical, non-cylindrical), plunge, interlimb angle, thickness, orientation, and shape of the hinge. It provides examples of different fold types and discusses parasitic folds. The document serves as a comprehensive overview of how folds are classified geometrically in structural geology.
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
This document provides an overview of structural geology, including different types of geological structures such as folds, faults, and joints. It defines key terms used in structural geology like strike, dip, limbs, and plunge. It describes different types of folds like anticlines and synclines. It also explains faults, describing components like the hanging wall and footwall, and types of faults including normal, reverse, thrust, strike-slip, and oblique slip faults. Finally, it briefly discusses joints and types like columnar and sheet joints. The study of structural geology is important for understanding rock deformation and identifying structures that can form traps for resources like oil and gas.
Description and classification of folds
This document provides an overview of structural geology and folds. It defines structural geology as the study of geological structures like folds, faults, unconformities and joints. Folds occur when rock layers bend due to compressive forces, and come in different forms like anticlines and synclines. The key parts of a fold are identified as the crest, trough, limbs, hinge and axial plane. Folds can be classified based on their symmetry, plunge, bed thickness changes and other characteristics. Examples of different fold types include symmetrical, asymmetrical, isoclinal, overturned and plunging folds. Considerations for engineering projects involving folded rock formations are also outlined.
Primary structures geology
This document defines and describes various primary structures found in sedimentary and igneous rocks. Primary structures form during or shortly after the formation of a rock and include features like bedding, cross-bedding, graded bedding, ripple marks, mud cracks, and unconformities in sedimentary rocks. In igneous rocks, primary structures include intrusive features like dykes, sills, batholiths, and extrusive features like pillow lava, ropy lava, and pyroclastic flows. Secondary structures form after the rocks solidify due to tectonic forces and include folds, faults, joints, and lineations.
Fold and its classification
This document summarizes the different types of rock folds, including their key parts and classifications. There are 11 types of folds described: anticline, syncline, symmetrical, asymmetrical, monocline, plunging, isocline, overturned, recumbent, zigzag, and dome folds. Folds occur when horizontal rock layers bend upward or downward due to compressive forces. They are classified as either anticlines, which bend upward, or synclines, which bend downward. Key parts of folds include the axis, axial plane, limbs, hinge line, and hinge zone.
Joints
This document discusses joints, which are fractures in rock where there has been no displacement of the rock on either side. It classifies joints based on their geometry and genesis. Geometrically, joints are classified as strike joints, dip joints, or oblique joints based on their orientation relative to the bedding of the rock. Genetically, joints are classified as tension joints, which form perpendicular to tensional forces, or shear joints, which form due to shearing stresses during folding or faulting. Examples of tension joints include columnar joints, mud cracks, sheet joints, and mural joints. The document discusses the formation and features of these different joint types and their presence in igneous, sedimentary, and metam
Folds and foldings
What are folds?
•Parts of the folds
•Classification of folds
•Classification on the basis of axial planes
•Classification on the basis of curvature(by Ramsay)
•Classification on the basis of plunge
•Engineering considerations
Modes of deformation of rocks presentation
Rocks can deform in two main ways: brittle deformation and ductile deformation. Brittle deformation occurs near the surface where pressures and temperatures are low, causing rocks to fracture. Ductile deformation occurs at depth, where high pressures and temperatures cause permanent shape changes without fracturing. The type of deformation depends on factors like pressure, temperature, strain rate, and rock composition. Hard rocks under low pressure and temperature typically undergo brittle deformation, while soft rocks at depth experience ductile deformation.
Lineation and their types
This document defines and describes different types of lineations found in deformed rocks, which are linear structures that occur repetitively. It discusses three main types of lineations: form lineations related to geological structures like folds, boudins, and slickenlines; surface lineations defined by intersections or slip; and mineral lineations caused by the preferred orientation of mineral grains or aggregates. Specific examples of each lineation type are provided, and the usefulness of lineations in structural analysis to determine strain and slip directions is explained.
UNCONFORMITY BY DHARMESH
This document defines and describes different types of unconformities in geology. It begins by defining an unconformity as a break or gap in the geological record representing a period of erosion or non-deposition. It then describes the major types of unconformities, including angular, disconformity, non-conformity, and local unconformities. Finally, it outlines several ways that unconformities provide significance, such as indicating time intervals missing from the geological record, structural discordances between rock layers, evidence of past topography, and signs of weathering at the contact surface.
Geological Faults
Faults are fractures with movement parallel to their plane, usually caused by seismic activity. Understanding faults is important for engineering structures. There are three main types of faults - normal, thrust, and strike-slip. Normal faults involve the hanging wall moving down relative to the footwall. Thrust faults involve the hanging wall moving up. Strike-slip faults involve lateral movement along the fault plane. Faults can be identified by features like slickensides, mineral growth, and offset stratigraphy. Fault classification helps understand mountain building and plate tectonics. Careful analysis of faults is necessary for safe construction near fault lines.
Isostasy
This document discusses the concept of isostasy, which refers to the equilibrium between the continental and oceanic crust due to gravitational forces. It was first defined in 1889 by American geologist Clarence Dutton. The main points are that the continental crust must be composed of lighter materials than the ocean floor to remain in equilibrium. Also, wherever the continental crust is thinner under the oceans, it extends below the ocean floor to maintain equilibrium. Early evidence for isostasy came from Pierre Bouguer's 1735 expedition to the Andes mountains, where he observed smaller than expected gravitational attraction that indicated compensation of the mountains' mass.
Joints and unconformity
What are joints?
•Terminology related to joints
•Classification
•Engineering considerations
Strike joints
Dip joint:
Oblique joint:
bedding joints.
Tension joints:
Shear joints:
Compression joints:
Structural Geology & Stress
Structural geology is the study of the architecture and geometry of the Earth's crust and the processes that have shaped it. It involves analyzing how rock bodies deform in response to tectonic stresses. Structural analysis generally involves descriptive, kinematic, and dynamic analysis. Descriptive analysis describes rock structures like folds and faults. Kinematic analysis evaluates strain and changes in shape and orientation of rocks. Dynamic analysis reconstructs the stresses that caused rock deformation and failure. Stresses in rocks can be tensile, compressive, or shear stresses. Stress is analyzed using concepts like the stress tensor, Mohr's circle diagrams, and the orientation of maximum shear stresses. The main sources of stress that drive deformation are the motions of tectonic
Brunton compas
The Brunton compass is a precision compass used by geologists, archaeologists, engineers, and surveyors to make accurate angle and degree measurements in the field. Unlike most modern compasses, it uses magnetic damping rather than fluid to dampen needle oscillation. Key components include the box, sighting arm, and lid, which house the needle, levels, scale, and damping mechanism. Users line up targets in the mirror and take readings of strike and dip to determine the attitude of linear and planar geological objects. The magnetic declination can also be set on the compass for mapping purposes.
Fault and its classification
This document provides an overview of fault classification. It begins with definitions of fault geometry, including fault plane, dip, strike, hanging wall, footwall, throw, and rake. Faults can be classified geometrically based on attributes like rake, attitude relative to adjacent rocks, pattern, dip angle, and apparent movement. Major geometric types include strike-slip, dip-slip, and diagonal-slip faults. Genetic classification considers the relative movement, and identifies normal, reverse, thrust, strike-slip, and other fault types. Major faults in India are described along with the distribution of faults globally. In conclusion, the author emphasizes the geological and economic importance of studying faults, as well as their relevance to engineering and
Foliation
This document defines and classifies different types of foliation in metamorphic rocks. It begins by defining foliation as a planar or curvi-planar fabric formed in metamorphic rocks. Foliations are classified genetically as primary, secondary, or inherited, and morphologically as spaced, continuous, or disjunctive. Key types of secondary foliation include cleavage, schistosity, slip cleavage, and shear cleavage. Foliations provide important information about the tectonic and metamorphic evolution of an area and help determine the geometry of folding. Different foliation types reflect variations in lithology and temperature during metamorphism and deformation.
Primary structures of sedimentary and igneous rocks
Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional of the rock units with respect to their deformational histories, Structure is spatial and geometrical configuration of rock components.
Structures are classified into two types:
Primary structures.
Secondary structures
Primary structures
Structures that form during deposition or crystallization of the rock, are the result of two processes:
Settling of solid particles from fluid medium in which they have been suspended, in most of the sedimentary rocks.
Crystallization of mineral grains from a liquid in which they have been dissolved as in igneous rocks.
Attitude of beds
1. Strike is the direction of the intersection of a geologic structure with a horizontal plane, while dip is the angle of inclination from horizontal.
2. A Brunton compass is used to measure the strike and dip of geologic structures in the field.
3. An outcrop is an exposure of a rock formation at the surface, and its pattern depends on factors like the structure's orientation and the topography.
265468739 shear-zones
1) Shear zones are tabular zones of higher strain than the surrounding rock, where ductile deformation occurs. Shear zones are thicker than fault zones.
2) Shear sense indicators in shear zones include asymmetric structures like S-C fabrics and mica fish, which indicate the direction of shear. Porphyroclast geometries also indicate shear sense.
3) Tension gashes and fractures that open parallel to the minimum stress axis can be used to determine the sense of shear in the zone. Their orientation and folding indicates whether shear was dextral or sinistral.
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Primary structures of sedimentary and igneous rocks
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This document provides an overview of structural geology concepts including folds, faults, strike, dip, and fold classification. It discusses that structural geology studies secondary rock structures like folds and faults, and defines key terms like outcrop, strike, and dip. It also categorizes and describes various types of folds such as anticlines, synclines, symmetrical/asymmetrical, plunging/non-plunging, open/closed, and domes and basins. The causes of folding from tectonic forces and effects on erosion are summarized. Faults are described as unfavorable for construction.
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This document provides an overview of structural geology concepts including folds, faults, strike, dip, and fold classification. It discusses that structural geology studies secondary rock structures like folds and faults, and defines key terms like outcrop, strike, and dip. It also categorizes and describes various types of folds such as anticlines, synclines, symmetrical/asymmetrical, plunging/non-plunging, open/closed, and provides examples of overturned folds, chevron folds, and domes/basins. The document outlines causes of folding including tectonic forces and effects such as characteristic topographic features. It concludes with a description of faults and their significance for construction projects.
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3. Faults form when rocks fracture and move relative to each other along a fracture surface due to stresses. Faults are classified based on the type and direction of movement between rock blocks.
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This document discusses various geological structures including folds, faults, and joints. It defines folds as bent rock layers, and describes key parts of folds such as the crest, trough, limbs, and axial plane. It also categorizes different types of folds based on their symmetry, plunge, and other characteristics. The document then defines faults as fractures with displacement, and explains fault terminology including the fault plane, footwall, hanging wall, and types of movement. Finally, it briefly introduces joints as fractures found in rocks.
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Folds and faults ppt
The document provides information about folds and faults. It defines folds as bent or curved rock layers, and describes common fold types like anticlines and synclines. It also defines various fault types including normal faults, thrust faults, strike-slip faults, and oblique faults. Specific structures are described like the San Andreas Fault, which is a major strike-slip fault in California. Dip, strike, heave and throw are also defined in relation to describing the orientation and movement of geological structures.
Folds (plicative dislocation).pptx.There are
Folds form when rocks undergo ductile deformation from compressional stress. There are several types of folds defined by their structure, including anticlines which point upwards and synclines which point downwards. Folds can be further classified based on features like the orientation of the axial plane and the angle between the limbs. Flexures are knee-like bends in stratified rock layers. Monoclines are folds with two horizontal limbs connected by a shorter inclined limb.
Lesson 7 DIASTROPHISM – FOLDING, FAULTING AND MORE.ppt
Here are the answers to the multiple choice questions:
1. c
2. d
3. c
4. a
5. d
6. a
7. c
8. b
9. b
10. b
chapter5.pptx
The document discusses structural geology and rock structures. It defines structural geology as the study of rock deformation and structures like folds, faults, and joints. It describes primary structures that form during rock formation and secondary structures that form later from tectonic forces. Common rock structures are described like bedding, cleavage, and folds. Folds are classified by their shape, orientation, and interlimb angle. Methods to measure the attitude and recognize folds in the field are provided. Causes of folding and faults are also discussed along with their engineering significance.
Study of deform rocks, folds and its types
This document summarizes a presentation on the study of deformed rocks and geological folds. It defines key terms like anticline and syncline folds, describes different types of folds like symmetrical, asymmetrical, and recumbent folds. It explains how rocks deform under stress, the different types of strain (elastic, ductile, and brittle), and how geological structures relate to stress and strength. Methods for identifying folds in the field are also summarized, including directly observing folds and measuring the attitude of hinges and axial planes.
__deformation_of_the_crust.ppt
The document discusses how mountains are formed through crustal deformation processes. It describes how isostatic adjustments occur as the crust seeks equilibrium between downward pressure from overlying rock and upward pressure from the mantle. When forces exceed rocks' ability to deform through folding, faults form through brittle failure. There are four main types of faults. Mountains are often formed at plate boundaries through collision and compression of crust. The main types are folded mountains, fault-block mountains, volcanic mountains, and dome mountains, each involving different deformation mechanisms.
3.1 deformation of the earths crust
The document discusses deformation of the Earth's crust through isostatic adjustment and stresses. Isostatic adjustment occurs when crust thickens or thins due to changes in weight, causing the crust to rise or sink into the mantle like a cargo ship. There are three main stresses on the crust - compression at convergent boundaries, tension at divergent boundaries, and shearing at transform faults. The crust is constantly seeking isostatic balance under these stresses.
3.1 deformation of the earths crust
The document discusses deformation of the Earth's crust through isostatic adjustment and stresses. Isostatic adjustment occurs when crust thickens or thins due to changes in weight, causing the crust to rise or sink into the mantle like a cargo ship. There are three main stresses on the crust - compression at convergent boundaries, tension at divergent boundaries, and shearing at transform faults. The crust is constantly seeking isostatic balance under these stresses.
4 structural geology
This document provides an overview of geological structures and the forces that cause them. It discusses stress, strain and rock strength, and how rocks deform through elastic, plastic and brittle mechanisms. The main types of stresses are described as tensional, compressional and shear. Geological structures include folds, fractures, joints and faults, which form through buckling or fracturing of rocks in response to these stresses. Specific fold types like anticlines and synclines are defined. Fractures include joints and faults, with joints involving no displacement and faults involving relative displacement of rock layers.
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Lesson 7 DIASTROPHISM – FOLDING, FAULTING AND MORE.ppt
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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
The document provides information on various topics in engineering geology including:
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Cement and admixtures
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Introduction and classification of rocks
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exogenous hazards
Cyclones are large-scale rotating air masses that form around low-pressure centers. They are characterized by inward spiraling winds and can cause heavy rainfall, strong winds, landfalls, and tornadoes. There are several types of cyclones including tropical cyclones that form over oceans in summer, hurricanes and typhoons being tropical cyclones, and polar cyclones that occur in polar regions in winter. Tropical cyclones are categorized from 1 to 5 based on their intensity and wind speeds.
Earthquake engineering
An earthquake is caused by rapid shaking of the ground due to movement of tectonic plates or volcanic activity underground. Earthquakes are measured using seismometers which record seismic waves on instruments called seismographs. The location and magnitude of earthquakes are determined from these recordings. The Richter scale is used to describe earthquake magnitude, with greater magnitudes indicating stronger shaking. Major effects of earthquakes include damage to buildings and structures, landslides, tsunamis, and changes to the land surface like cracks and fissures. The most active seismic belts are around the Pacific Ocean, along the Alps and Himalayas, and along mid-ocean ridges.
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This document discusses construction of buildings in seismic areas and provides guidelines for earthquake-resistant construction. It defines seismic belts as areas where earthquakes occur frequently and shield areas where they occur rarely or mildly. It recommends that buildings be founded on hard bedrock and avoid irregular shapes, loose soils, or cuttings. Reinforced concrete should be used with raft foundations and all parts of the building well-tied together to act as a single unit during vibrations. The document also discusses the Richter scale for measuring earthquake magnitudes and the increased damage radii from magnitude 5 to 8 earthquakes.
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Mineralogy
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solid substances with a defined chemical composition and crystal structure. There are over 4,900 known mineral species, with silicate minerals making up over 90% of the Earth's crust. Minerals form through crystallization as ions come together and atoms arrange themselves in an ordered pattern. They can crystallize from magma or other melts as they cool, or form through precipitation from fluids. The scientific study of minerals is called mineralogy, which examines their chemistry, crystal structure, physical properties, origins, classification, and distribution. Key physical properties used to identify minerals include color, streak, luster, hardness, cleavage, and fracture.
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Geology
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Geology
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Climate change refers to significant and lasting changes in the average weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It encompasses both global warming driven by human emissions of greenhouse gases and the resulting large-scale shifts in weather patterns. While climate change is a natural phenomenon, human activities, particularly since the Industrial Revolution, have accelerated its pace and intensity
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Increasing urbanization, rural–urban migration, rising standards of living, and rapid development associated with population growth have resulted in increased solid waste generation by industrial, domestic and other activities in Nairobi City. It has been noted in other contexts too that increasing population, changing consumption patterns, economic development, changing income, urbanization and industrialization all contribute to the increased generation of waste.
With the increasing urban population in Kenya, which is estimated to be growing at a rate higher than that of the country’s general population, waste generation and management is already a major challenge. The industrialization and urbanization process in the country, dominated by one major city – Nairobi, which has around four times the population of the next largest urban centre (Mombasa) – has witnessed an exponential increase in the generation of solid waste. It is projected that by 2030, about 50 per cent of the Kenyan population will be urban.
Aim:
A healthy, safe, secure and sustainable solid waste management system fit for a world – class city.
Improve and protect the public health of Nairobi residents and visitors.
Ecological health, diversity and productivity and maximize resource recovery through the participatory approach.
Goals:
Build awareness and capacity for source separation as essential components of sustainable waste management.
Build new environmentally sound infrastructure and systems for safe disposal of residual waste and replacing current dumpsites which should be commissioned.
Current solid waste management situation:
The status.
Solid waste generation rate is at 2240 tones / day
collection efficiently is at about 50%.
Actors i.e. city authorities, CBO’s , private firms and self-disposal
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• Nairobi is one of the C40 cities in this respect , various actors in the solid waste management space have adopted a variety of technologies to reduce short lived climate pollutants including source separation , recycling , marketing of the recycled products.
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Good practices:
Despite the dismal collection of solid waste in Nairobi city, there are practices and activities of informal actors (CBOs, CBO-SACCOs and yard shop operators) and other formal industrial actors on solid waste collection, recycling and waste reduction.
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CHALLENGES:
• Resource Allocation.
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留信网认证的作用:
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Peatlands of Latin America and the Caribbean
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Wildlife-AnIntroduction.pdf so that you know more about our environment
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本公司拥有海外各大学样板无数，能完美还原。
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◇不清楚认证流程以及材料该如何准备；
◇回国时间很长，忘记办理；
◇回国马上就要找工作，办给用人单位看；
◇企事业单位必须要求办理的
◇需要报考公务员、购买免税车、落转户口
◇申请留学生创业基金
留信网认证的作用:
1:该专业认证可证明留学生真实身份
2:同时对留学生所学专业登记给予评定
3:国家专业人才认证中心颁发入库证书
4:这个认证书并且可以归档倒地方
5:凡事获得留信网入网的信息将会逐步更新到个人身份内，将在公安局网内查询个人身份证信息后，同步读取人才网入库信息
6:个人职称评审加20分
7:个人信誉贷款加10分
8:在国家人才网主办的国家网络招聘大会中纳入资料，供国家高端企业选择人才
Epcon is One of the World's leading Manufacturing Companies.
Epcon is One of the World's leading Manufacturing Companies. With over 4000 installations worldwide, EPCON has been pioneering new techniques since 1977 that have become industry standards now. Founded in 1977, Epcon has grown from a one-man operation to a global leader in developing and manufacturing innovative air pollution control technology and industrial heating equipment.
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Water polluted by dyestuffs compounds is a global threat to health and the environment; accordingly, we prepared a green novel sorbent chemical and Physical system from an algae, chitosan and chitosan nanoparticle and impregnated with algae with chitosan nanocomposite for the sorption of Malachite green dye from water. The algae with chitosan nanocomposite by a simple method and used as a recyclable and effective adsorbent for the removal of malachite green dye from aqueous solutions. Algae, chitosan, chitosan nanoparticle and algae with chitosan nanocomposite were characterized using different physicochemical methods. The functional groups and chemical compounds found in algae, chitosan, chitosan algae, chitosan nanoparticle, and chitosan nanoparticle with algae were identified using FTIR, SEM, and TGADTA/DTG techniques. The optimal adsorption conditions, different dosages, pH and Temperature the amount of algae with chitosan nanocomposite were determined. At optimized conditions and the batch equilibrium studies more than 99% of the dye was removed. The adsorption process data matched well kinetics showed that the reaction order for dye varied with pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order. Furthermore, the maximum adsorption capacity of the algae with chitosan nanocomposite toward malachite green dye reached as high as 15.5mg/g, respectively. Finally, multiple times reusing of algae with chitosan nanocomposite and removing dye from a real wastewater has made it a promising and attractive option for further practical applications.
Peatland Management in Indonesia, Science to Policy and Knowledge Education
Peatland Management in Indonesia, Science to Policy and Knowledge EducationGlobal Landscapes Forum (GLF)
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The incorporation of a 3DCSM and completion of HRSC provided a tool for enhanced, data-driven, decisions to support a change in remediation closure strategies. Currently, an approved pilot study has been obtained to shut-down the remediation systems (ISCO, P&T) and conduct a hydraulic study under non-pumping conditions. A separate micro-biological bench scale treatability study was competed that yielded positive results for an emerging innovative technology. As a result, a field pilot study has commenced with results expected in nine-twelve months. With the results of the hydraulic study, field pilot studies and an updated risk assessment leading site monitoring optimization cost lifecycle savings upwards of $15MM towards an alternatively evolved best available technology remediation closure strategy.
Microbial characterisation and identification, and potability of River Kuywa ...
Microbial characterisation and identification, and potability of River Kuywa ...Open Access Research Paper
Water contamination is one of the major causes of water borne diseases worldwide. In Kenya, approximately 43% of people lack access to potable water due to human contamination. River Kuywa water is currently experiencing contamination due to human activities. Its water is widely used for domestic, agricultural, industrial and recreational purposes. This study aimed at characterizing bacteria and fungi in river Kuywa water. Water samples were randomly collected from four sites of the river: site A (Matisi), site B (Ngwelo), site C (Nzoia water pump) and site D (Chalicha), during the dry season (January-March 2018) and wet season (April-July 2018) and were transported to Maseno University Microbiology and plant pathology laboratory for analysis. The characterization and identification of bacteria and fungi were carried out using standard microbiological techniques. Nine bacterial genera and three fungi were identified from Kuywa river water. Clostridium spp., Staphylococcus spp., Enterobacter spp., Streptococcus spp., E. coli, Klebsiella spp., Shigella spp., Proteus spp. and Salmonella spp. Fungi were Fusarium oxysporum, Aspergillus flavus complex and Penicillium species. Wet season recorded highest bacterial and fungal counts (6.61-7.66 and 3.83-6.75cfu/ml) respectively. The results indicated that the river Kuywa water is polluted and therefore unsafe for human consumption before treatment. It is therefore recommended that the communities to ensure that they boil water especially for drinking.
Promoting Multilateral Cooperation for Sustainable Peatland management
Presented by Agus Julianto on GLF Peatlands 2024 - 360 Degree Approach to Improving Capacity of Multiple Stakeholders to Manage Peatland Sustainably
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Results of geophysics and pneumatic injection pilot tests during 2003 – 2007 yielded significant positive results for injection delivery design and contaminant mass treatment, resulting in permanent shut-down of an existing groundwater Pump & Treat system.
Accessible source areas were subsequently removed (2011) by soil excavation and treated with the placement of Emulsified Vegetable Oil EVO and zero-valent iron ZVI to accelerate treatment of impacted groundwater in overburden and weathered fractured bedrock. Post pilot test and post remediation groundwater monitoring has included analyses of CVOCs, organic fatty acids, dissolved gases and QuantArray® -Chlor to quantify key microorganisms (e.g., Dehalococcoides, Dehalobacter, etc.) and functional genes (e.g., vinyl chloride reductase, methane monooxygenase, etc.) to assess potential for reductive dechlorination and aerobic cometabolism of CVOCs.
In 2022, the first commercial application of MetaArray™ was performed at the site. MetaArray™ utilizes statistical analysis, such as principal component analysis and multivariate analysis to provide evidence that reductive dechlorination is active or even that it is slowing. This creates actionable data allowing users to save money by making important site management decisions earlier.
The results of the MetaArray™ analysis’ support vector machine (SVM) identified groundwater monitoring wells with a 80% confidence that were characterized as either Limited for Reductive Decholorination or had a High Reductive Reduction Dechlorination potential. The results of MetaArray™ will be used to further optimize the site’s post remediation monitoring program for monitored natural attenuation.
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ENVIRONMENT~ Renewable Energy Sources and their future prospects.
This presentation is for us to know that how our Environment need Attention for protection of our natural resources which are depleted day by day that's why we need to take time and shift our attention to renewable energy sources instead of non-renewable sources which are better and Eco-friendly for our environment. these renewable energy sources are so helpful for our planet and for every living organism which depends on environment.
Global Peatlands Map and Hotspot Explanation Atlas
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Folds
- 1. FOLDS STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY K .TARUN KUMAR STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
- 2. DEFINITION: • Folds are one of the most common geological structures found in rocks. When a set of horizontal layers are subjected to compressive forces, they bend either upwards or downwards. B A B A A A= BEDS BEND UPWARDS B= BEDS BENT DOWNWARDS
- 3. • The bends noticed in rocks are called folds. • Folds are described variously as wavy or arch or curvy types founds in rocks. • In terms of nature too, folds may occur as single local bends or may occur repeatedly and intricately folded according to the tectonic history of the region.
- 4. Types of FOLDS: • Based on different principles, the folds are variously classified on : 1.Symmetrical character. 2.Upward or downward bend. 3.Occurrence of plunge. 4.Bed thickness 5.Behaviour of the fold pattern.
- 5. • Anticline and Syncline: • When a beds are bent upwards, the resulting fold is called Anticline. This fold is convex upwards. • (Anti= Opposite, Cline= Inclination) 1 2 3 2 1 3
- 6. • Syncline is just opposite to anticline on its nature, when the beds are bent downwards the resulting fold is called Syncline. 1 2 3 3 2 1
- 7. Symmetrical and Asymmetrical folds: • When the axial plane divides a fold into two equal halves in such away that one half is the mirror image of another, then such fold is called Symmetrical fold. » A = B A = B • If the two halves are not mirror images, then the fold is called Asymmetrical fold. IF the compressive forces responsible for folding are not of the same magnitude, asymmetrical folds are formed. AXIAL PLANE A B AXIAL PLANE BA
- 8. • Open and Closed Folds • Similar and Parallel Folds