A beginners guide into routing, its elements and basic working principles. An introduction to most widely used Unicast routing protocols and their working principles.
Many Networking Software are structured into layers in the same way, TCP/IP is modelled in layers. This layered representation represents the term protocol stack, which refers to the stacked set of rules in the protocol suite. Copy the link given below and paste it in new browser window to get more information on TCP IP Model:- www.transtutors.com/homework-help/computer-science/tcp-ip-model.aspx
(Ref : Computer System Architecture by Morris Mano 3rd edition) : Microprogrammed Control unit, micro instructions, micro operations, symbolic and binary microprogram.
Since 2007 GOFORTUTION.coM is the search engine of tutors & Students in Delhi and all over India .It provides cheapest and best home tutors to students and it also helps to Tutors who are seeking students for home tution. We at Mentor Me provide highly qualified, result oriented, enthusiastic and responsible tutors for all classes, all subjects and in all locations across Delhi & all over India. Here we have tutors for all subjects of CBSE, ICSE,B.com, B.Sc, BBA, BCA,MBA,CA,CS,MCA,BCA,”O” Level, “A” Level etc.GOFORTUTION is a best portal for tutors and students it is not only a site.
Many Networking Software are structured into layers in the same way, TCP/IP is modelled in layers. This layered representation represents the term protocol stack, which refers to the stacked set of rules in the protocol suite. Copy the link given below and paste it in new browser window to get more information on TCP IP Model:- www.transtutors.com/homework-help/computer-science/tcp-ip-model.aspx
(Ref : Computer System Architecture by Morris Mano 3rd edition) : Microprogrammed Control unit, micro instructions, micro operations, symbolic and binary microprogram.
Since 2007 GOFORTUTION.coM is the search engine of tutors & Students in Delhi and all over India .It provides cheapest and best home tutors to students and it also helps to Tutors who are seeking students for home tution. We at Mentor Me provide highly qualified, result oriented, enthusiastic and responsible tutors for all classes, all subjects and in all locations across Delhi & all over India. Here we have tutors for all subjects of CBSE, ICSE,B.com, B.Sc, BBA, BCA,MBA,CA,CS,MCA,BCA,”O” Level, “A” Level etc.GOFORTUTION is a best portal for tutors and students it is not only a site.
Assignment 2 LASA 1 IP NetworkingIn this assignment, you will wri.docxhuttenangela
Assignment 2: LASA 1 IP Networking
In this assignment, you will write a paper in which you recommend whether you feel your network is ready to transition to IPv6.
The IP is the basic communications protocol that all Internet traffic communicates with; essentially, the entire Internet is built on it. For the past two decades, we have used IPv4. In June 2012, there was an official worldwide release of an upgrade to IPv6. Routers, bridges, switches, and all other equipment (including operating systems) across the world had to be compatible with this version to ensure cross compatibility. The new version minimizes the size of packet headers (therefore, sending less traffic), supports multicasting, allows for stateless auto configuration, and, perhaps most importantly, adds IP address capability. Under IPv4, there were about 4.3 billion IP addresses available. Under IPv6, 340 trillion trillion (yes, two trillions) addresses available. This removed the urgent need for more IP addresses across the globe.
Tasks:
Your boss has read about IPv6 and wants to know whether the network you oversee is ready for the transition. Prepare a response based on the networking and computer operating systems used in your facility. In your response, include the following:
Identify the computer operating systems and networking systems used in the company.
Explain the pros and cons of IPv6 over the use of IPv4. Compare and contrast the two technologies.
Identify if the organization is currently ready for IPv6. Justify your answer with research.
Your company is assigned a 206.206.155.0/24 CIDR block by your ISP. Below is a CIDR block list for your reference. Your company consists of four different networks:
Network A: 50 users
Network B: 26 users
Network C: 12 users
Network D: 10 users
Describe how you will create four subnets and allocate enough IP addresses for the users within the network.
CIDR BLOCKS AND NUMBER OF HOST IDS PER SEGMENT
CIDR block
Number of equivalent
Class C networks
Number of network ID bits
Number of host
ID bits
Total number of host addresses per segment
= (2 ^# of host ID bits)
Number of usable host addresses per segment
= (2 ^# of host ID bits) – 2
/27
1/8 Class C
27
5
32
30
/26
1/4 Class C
26
6
64
62
/25
1/2 Class C
25
7
128
126
/24
1 Class C
24
8
256
254
/23
2 Class C
23
9
512
510
/22
4 Class C
22
10
1,024
1,022
/21
8 Class C
21
11
2,048
2,046
/20
16 Class C
20
12
4,096
4,094
/19
32 Class C
19
13
8,192
8,190
/18
64 Class C
18
14
16,384
16,382
/17
128 Class C
17
15
32,768
32,766
/16
256 Class C = 1 Class B
16
16
65,536
65,534
/15
512 Class C = 2 Class B
15
17
131,072
131,070
/14
1024 Class C=4 Class B
14
18
262,144
262,142
/13
2048 Class C=8 Class B
13
19
524,288
524,286
Submission Details:
By
Wednesday, March 2, 2016
, prepare a 5- to 7-page report. Write in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrate ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources (i.e., use APA format); and display accurate spelling, g.
Alt. GDG Cloud Southlake #33: Boule & Rebala: Effective AppSec in SDLC using ...James Anderson
Effective Application Security in Software Delivery lifecycle using Deployment Firewall and DBOM
The modern software delivery process (or the CI/CD process) includes many tools, distributed teams, open-source code, and cloud platforms. Constant focus on speed to release software to market, along with the traditional slow and manual security checks has caused gaps in continuous security as an important piece in the software supply chain. Today organizations feel more susceptible to external and internal cyber threats due to the vast attack surface in their applications supply chain and the lack of end-to-end governance and risk management.
The software team must secure its software delivery process to avoid vulnerability and security breaches. This needs to be achieved with existing tool chains and without extensive rework of the delivery processes. This talk will present strategies and techniques for providing visibility into the true risk of the existing vulnerabilities, preventing the introduction of security issues in the software, resolving vulnerabilities in production environments quickly, and capturing the deployment bill of materials (DBOM).
Speakers:
Bob Boule
Robert Boule is a technology enthusiast with PASSION for technology and making things work along with a knack for helping others understand how things work. He comes with around 20 years of solution engineering experience in application security, software continuous delivery, and SaaS platforms. He is known for his dynamic presentations in CI/CD and application security integrated in software delivery lifecycle.
Gopinath Rebala
Gopinath Rebala is the CTO of OpsMx, where he has overall responsibility for the machine learning and data processing architectures for Secure Software Delivery. Gopi also has a strong connection with our customers, leading design and architecture for strategic implementations. Gopi is a frequent speaker and well-known leader in continuous delivery and integrating security into software delivery.
LF Energy Webinar: Electrical Grid Modelling and Simulation Through PowSyBl -...DanBrown980551
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PowSyBl is an open source project hosted by LF Energy, which offers a comprehensive set of features for electrical grid modelling and simulation. Among other advanced features, PowSyBl provides:
- A fully editable and extendable library for grid component modelling;
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- Grid simulation tools, such as power flows, security analyses (with or without remedial actions) and sensitivity analyses;
The framework is mostly written in Java, with a Python binding so that Python developers can access PowSyBl functionalities as well.
What you will learn during the webinar:
- For beginners: discover PowSyBl's functionalities through a quick general presentation and the notebook, without needing any expert coding skills;
- For advanced developers: master the skills to efficiently apply PowSyBl functionalities to your real-world scenarios.
GraphRAG is All You need? LLM & Knowledge GraphGuy Korland
Guy Korland, CEO and Co-founder of FalkorDB, will review two articles on the integration of language models with knowledge graphs.
1. Unifying Large Language Models and Knowledge Graphs: A Roadmap.
https://arxiv.org/abs/2306.08302
2. Microsoft Research's GraphRAG paper and a review paper on various uses of knowledge graphs:
https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/blog/graphrag-unlocking-llm-discovery-on-narrative-private-data/
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 4DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 4. In this session, we will cover Test Manager overview along with SAP heatmap.
The UiPath Test Manager overview with SAP heatmap webinar offers a concise yet comprehensive exploration of the role of a Test Manager within SAP environments, coupled with the utilization of heatmaps for effective testing strategies.
Participants will gain insights into the responsibilities, challenges, and best practices associated with test management in SAP projects. Additionally, the webinar delves into the significance of heatmaps as a visual aid for identifying testing priorities, areas of risk, and resource allocation within SAP landscapes. Through this session, attendees can expect to enhance their understanding of test management principles while learning practical approaches to optimize testing processes in SAP environments using heatmap visualization techniques
What will you get from this session?
1. Insights into SAP testing best practices
2. Heatmap utilization for testing
3. Optimization of testing processes
4. Demo
Topics covered:
Execution from the test manager
Orchestrator execution result
Defect reporting
SAP heatmap example with demo
Speaker:
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
SAP Sapphire 2024 - ASUG301 building better apps with SAP Fiori.pdfPeter Spielvogel
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• What is SAP Fiori and why it matters to you
• How a better user experience drives measurable business benefits
• How to get started with SAP Fiori today
• How SAP Fiori elements accelerates application development
• How SAP Build Code includes SAP Fiori tools and other generative artificial intelligence capabilities
• How SAP Fiori paves the way for using AI in SAP apps
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We’ll kick things off by showcasing the most commonly used event-based triggers, introducing you to various automation workflows like manual triggers, schedules, directory watchers, and more. Plus, see how these elements play out in real scenarios.
Whether you’re tweaking your current setup or building from the ground up, this session will arm you with the tools and insights needed to transform your FME usage into a powerhouse of productivity. Join us to discover effective strategies that simplify complex processes, enhancing your productivity and transforming your data management practices with FME. Let’s turn complexity into clarity and make your workspaces work wonders!
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Rapid and secure feature delivery is a goal across every application team and every branch of the DoD. The Navy’s DevSecOps platform, Party Barge, has achieved:
- Reduction in onboarding time from 5 weeks to 1 day
- Improved developer experience and productivity through actionable findings and reduction of false positives
- Maintenance of superior security standards and inherent policy enforcement with Authorization to Operate (ATO)
Development teams can ship efficiently and ensure applications are cyber ready for Navy Authorizing Officials (AOs). In this webinar, Sigma Defense and Anchore will give attendees a look behind the scenes and demo secure pipeline automation and security artifacts that speed up application ATO and time to production.
We will cover:
- How to remove silos in DevSecOps
- How to build efficient development pipeline roles and component templates
- How to deliver security artifacts that matter for ATO’s (SBOMs, vulnerability reports, and policy evidence)
- How to streamline operations with automated policy checks on container images
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However, this ease of use means that the subject of security in Kubernetes is often left for later, or even neglected. This exposes companies to significant risks.
In this talk, I'll show you step-by-step how to secure your Kubernetes cluster for greater peace of mind and reliability.
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zkStudyClub - Reef: Fast Succinct Non-Interactive Zero-Knowledge Regex ProofsAlex Pruden
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https://alandix.com/academic/papers/synergy2024-epistemic/
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3. What is routing?
Why is routing required?
At which layer is routing done?
How does a router work?
Some Basic Questions
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar3
4. What is routing?
Routing is the process of selecting a path in
a network along which the packets shall be
sent to a destination
Routing consists of
A Router
A set of routing protocols
A routing information base (RIB)
One or more routing algorithms
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar4
5. Why is routing required?
For practical limitation of physical
connections
For efficiently managing the network traffic
For efficient usage of network resources
For catering to different types of services
For congestion control
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar5
6. At which layer is routing done?
Generally routing is done at network layer
Multilayer layer routing and Cross layer routing is also
prevalent nowadays
Firewalls are often integrated with routers
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar6
7. Router, Switch and Hub
The basic difference is varying intelligence
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar7
8. How does a router work?
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar8
9. Delivery
The network layer supervises the
handling of packets by the underlying
physical network
Every packet undergoes at least one
“Direct Delivery” and one or more
“Indirect Delivery”
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar9
10. Direct and Indirect Delivery
To rest of Network
Source SourceDestination
Destination
Direct
Indirect
Direct
Direct
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar10
11. Logical addressing: IP and MASK
Internet Protocol address is a logical and global
addressing scheme
It uniquely defines the connection of a
device/network to the Internet
IPv4: 32 bit addressing scheme
Address space: 232
= 4294967296
Notations: Dotted Decimal:
117.149.29.2
Notations: Binary:
01110101 1001010 00011101 00000010
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar11
12. Logical addressing: IP and MASK
Classful addressing
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
0
10
110
1110
1111
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
0-127
128-191
192-223
224-239
240-255
Classes
Class A
Class B
Class C
Class D
Class E
Class No. of Blocks Block Size Application
A 128 16,777,216 Unicast
B 16,384 65,536 Unicast
C 2,097,152 256 Unicast
D 1 268,435,456 Multicast
E 1 268,435,456 Reserved
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar12
13. Logical addressing: IP and MASK
Mask: A 32 bit number made of n contiguous 1s
followed by (32-n) contiguous 0s (n<32)
Default masks for Classful addressing:
Given an IP and its mask, one can calculate:
First Address
Last Address
Range of Addresses
Class Binary Dotted Decimal CIDR
A 11111111 00000000 00000000 00000000 255.0.0.0 /8
B 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000 255.255.0.0 /16
C 11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000 255.255.255.0 /24
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar13
14. Logical addressing: IP and MASK
Classless addressing: No more classes but a
block of addresses are assigned, provided the
following restrictions are strictly followed
The addresses in the block must be contiguous
The number of addresses must be a power of 2
The first address must be evenly divisible by the total
number of addresses allocated
Mask is a better way to define a block
An example: Given an IP address
205.16.37.39/28
What are the first, last and the total number of
addresses assigned?
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar14
15. Logical addressing: IP and MASK
Binary equivalent of mask /28:
11111111 11111111 11111111 11110000 (255.255.255.240)
Binary equivalent of the address:
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111 (205.16.37.39)
First address: Set the right most 4 bits to 0:
11001101 00010000 00100101 0010000 (205.16.37.32)
Last address: Set the right most 4 bits to 1:
11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111 (205.16.37.47)
Number of addresses: 232-n
= 24
=16
So, in general a address in classless addressing is
mentioned as: x.y.z.t/n
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar15
16. Network Address
When a organization is allocated a block of addresses,
normally (not always) the first address is treated as the
network address
It is not assigned to any device, it defines the organization
itself to the rest of the world
REST of the WORLD
Network Address:
205.16.37.32
All packets with receiver
address 205.16.37.32 to
205.16.37.47 are routed to
x.y.z.t/nx.y.x.t/n 205.16.37.32/28
205.16.39.33/28 205.16.39.47/28
… …
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar16
17. Routing Table
A host or a router maintains a ‘routing table’ with
an entry for each specific destination
The table can be STATIC or DYNAMIC
Static Routing Table:
Contains information entered manually by the
administrator at the time of creation
Cannot be modified automatically when there is any
change in the Internet
Dynamic Routing Table:
Capable of updating the table with the help of routing
protocols and algorithms automatically
Only option for managing any large network of today
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar17
18. Routing Table
Mask: Defines the mask applied to that entry
Network Address: Defines the network address to
which the packet is finally delivered. In host specific
routing, this is the destination host address
Next Hop Address: Defines the address of the hop
for the packet
Interface: Shows the name of the interfaces
Mask
Network
Interface
Next-hop
address
Interface Flags
Reference
Count
Use
… … … … … … …
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar18
19. Routing Table
FLAGS: Defines up to five flags
U (Up): Router is up and running
G (Gateway): Destination is in another network
H (Host-specific): Network address is host-specific address.
Otherwise the network address is the destination address
D (Added by redirection): Routing info is added to host routing table
by redirection message from ICMP
M (Modified by redirection): Routing info for destination is modified
to host routing table by redirection message from ICMP
Reference Count: Defines number of users at this
route at the moment
Use: Defines number of packets transmitted through
the router for a destination
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar19
20. A quick look at a system routing table
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar20
21. Network Configuration of a System
form the Routing Table
A UNIX server gives the following result with netstat
and ifconfig command
$ netstat –nr
Kernel IP routing table
$ ifconfig eth0
Eth0 Link encap:Ethernet Hwaddr 00:B0:D0:DF:09:5D
Inet addr: 153.18.17.11 Bcast: 153.18.31.255 Mask:255.255.240.0
What is the network configuration of the server?
Destination Gateway Mask Flags Iface
153.18.16.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.240.0 U eth0
127.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 U lo
0.0.0.0 153.18.31.254 0.0.0.0 UG eth0
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar21
22. Network Configuration from the
Routing Table
Rest of the Internet
153.18.16.0/20
153.18.31.254/20
153.18.17.11/20
eth0
00:B0:D0:DF:09:5D
Default
Router
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar22
23. Forwarding
It means placing the packet in its route to its
destination
Requires a host or a router to have a routing table
When the host has a packet to send or the router
has received a packet, it looks up this routing
table to determine route to the final destination
Routing techniques caters to optimizing this table
as maintain a full-fledged look-up table is
impossible to maintain
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar23
24. Forwarding Techniques
Next-hop method Vs Route Method
N1
N2 N3
R1 R2
Host A
Host B
Routing tables based on routing
Destination Route
Host B R1, R2, host B
Destination Route
Host B R2, host B
Destination Route
Host B Host B
Routing tables based on Next-hop
Destination Route
Host B R1
Destination Route
Host B R2
Destination Route
Host B Host B
For
A
For
R1
For
R2
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar24
25. December 7, 2009
Forwarding Techniques
Network-Specific method Vs Host Specific method
System
DCBA
N2N1
Routing table for host S based on
host-specific method
Destination Next Hop
A R1
B R1
C R1
D R1
Routing table for host S based on
network-specific method
Destination Next Hop
N2 R1
R1
Tusharadri Sarkar25
26. Forwarding Techniques
Default Method: Using a default router
N1 N2
R1
R2
Host A
Rest of the Internet
Default
Router
Destination Next Hop
N2 R2
Any other R1
Routing
table for
host A
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar26
27. Forwarding Process
In classless addressing, at least 4 columns are required
The routing table is searched based on the network address
and mask
Mask Network
Address
Next-hop
Address
Interface
… … … …
… … … …
… … … …
Extract
Destination
Address
Search
Table
Forwarding Module
To ARP
Next –hop address
and interface no.
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar27
28. Managing Routing Table in Classless
Addressing
Address aggregation: Blocks of addresses of different
interface and mask are aggregated into one single block in
routing table
Several levels of aggregation are possible
140.24.7.0/26
140.24.7.64/26
140.24.7.128/26
140.24.7.192/26
Org 1
Org 2
Org 3
Org 4
m0
m1
m2
m3
m4 m0 m1
R1 R2
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar28
29. Managing Routing Table in Classless
Addressing
Address aggregation: Routing tables for router R1
and router R2
For R2, any packet with destination addresses 140.24.7.0 to
140.24.7.255 are sent to interface m0 regardless of any of
the organizations
Mask NA NHA Iface
/26 140.24.7.0 … m0
/26 140.24.7.64 … m1
/26 140.24.7.128 … m2
/26 140.24.7.192 … m3
/0 0.0.0.0 Default m4
Mask NA NHA Iface
/24 140.24.7.0 … m0
/0 0.0.0.0 Default m1
Routing table for R1 Routing table for R2
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar29
30. Longest Mask Matching
What happens if Org. 4 is not geographically close to the other
3 Orgs?
Can we still use Address Aggregation and assign the block
140.24.7.192/26 to Org. 4?
R2
R1
R3
140.24.7.0/26
140.24.7.64/26
140.24.7.128/26
140.24.7.192/26
Org 1
Org 2
Org 3
Org 4
m0
m1
m2
m3
m0 m2
m1
m0m1
m2
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar30
31. Longest Mask Matching
Answer: YES
Reason: LONGEST MASK MATCHING
The “Routing Table” is sorted from the longest mask to the
shortest mask
Mask NA NHA Iface
/26 140.24.7.0 … m0
/26 140.24.7.64 … m1
/26 140.24.7.128 … m2
/0 0.0.0.0 Default m3
Mask NA NHA Iface
/26 140.24.7.192 … m0
/0 0.0.0.0 Default m2
Mask NA NHA Iface
/26 140.24.7.192 … m1
/24 140.24.7.0 … m0
/0 0.0.0.0 Default m2
Routing table for R1 Routing table for R2
Routing table for R3 December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar31
32. Hierarchical Routing
Hierarchical routing can greatly minimize the size of
the routing tables
For example, a regional ISP is granted a 16,384 (214
)
addresses starting from 120.14.64.0/18
It is divided in to 4 sub-blocks each of size 4096 for
3 local ISPs. For them the mask is /20
1st
local ISP divides its assigns sub-blocks into 8
smaller blocks for small ISPs. For them the mask
becomes /23
Each small ISPs divides them into 128 sub-blocks
for households. For them the mask becomes /30,
and so on…
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar32
33. Hierarchical Routing
The logical representation is displayed here
120.14.64.0/18
Total 16,384
120.14.64.0/20
120.14.64.0/23120.14.64.0/30
120.14.78.0/30
120.14.78.0/23
120.14.80.0/20
120.14.96.0/22
120.14.112.0/24
120.14.96.0/20
120.14.112.0/20
Total
4096
Total
4096
Total
4096
Total
4096
512
512
ISP 1
ISP 2.1
ISP 3.1
ISP 3.8
ISP 2.2
ISP 2.3
Total 4 Large Orgs.
Total 16 Small Orgs.
128 Each
128 Each
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar33
34. Geographical Routing
The same concept of hierarchical routing can be
extended in geographical routing
To decrease the size of the routing tables further,
segregation is done in geographical level as well
For example, the entire address space is divided
into few large blocks
One block is assigned to North America, one to
Asia, one to Africa, one to Europe and so on…
So, for all the routers of the ISPs outside Europe,
every router will have one and only entry for all the
addresses assigned to Europe
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar34
35. Unicast Routing Protocols
Routing protocols are needed to maintain and
update dynamic routing tables
A routing protocols is a combination of set of rules
(algorithms) and procedures
Unicast routing protocols applies where each
incoming packet has to be delivered to one and
only one destination
Router decides the next hope of a packet in a
‘Autonomous System’ based on ‘Optimization’
3 most popular and basic Unicast Routing
Protocols are: RIP (Distance Vector routing), OSPF
(Path Vector routing) and BGP (Link State routing)
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar35
36. Autonomous Systems
An ‘Autonomous System’ or ‘AS’ is group of
networks and routers under the authority of a single
administration
Routing inside AS : Intra-domain routing
Routing between AS : Inter-domain routing
AS1
AS4AS3
AS2
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar36
38. Optimization
The router must always choose the optimum path
between two networks for the packets
There is a cost associated with each packet for
passing through a network, called ‘Metric’
The metric is different depending on the routing
protocols. For example:
In RIP, the hop count is used as the metric
In OSPF, the administrator can assign a cost for
network based on the type of service required
In BGP, the administrator can set the cost based on
the policy of the network
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar38
39. Distance Vector Routing
In DVR, the least cost route between any two nodes
is the route with minimum distance
Each node maintains a vector (table) of minimum
distance to every node known
There are three steps involved:
Initialization: At the beginning, each node knows the
distance to its immediate neighbors
Sharing: Periodically or in triggered time, the nodes
share their vectors with other nodes
Updating: Based on the shared info, nodes updates
their vectors about path to indirectly connected
nodes
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar39
40. DVR: Initialization
To Cost Next
A 0 _
B 5 _
C 2 _
D 3 _
E ∞
A
C
B
ED
5
3
2 4
34
To Cost Next
A 3 _
B ∞
C ∞
D 0 _
E ∞
To Cost Next
A 5 _
B 0 _
C 4 _
D ∞
E 3 _
To Cost Next
A ∞
B 3 _
C 4 _
D ∞
E 0 _
To Cost Next
A 2 _
B 4 _
C 0 _
D ∞
E 4 _
Table of “A” Table of “B”
Table of “C”
Table of “D” Table of “E”
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar40
41. DVR: Sharing and Updating
Each node will share its routing table on periodic
basis or triggered condition
Full routing table needed not be shared. In our
scenario, only column 1 and column 2 will be shared.
Next Hop Address (column 3) will be calculated
based on that
Receiving a partial table from its neighbor, a node
calculates a temporary updated table
Then each row of the old and new table are
compared based on the next node entry (col. 3)
If next node entry is different, the row with smaller cost is
chosen. If there is a tie, old entry is kept
If next node entry is same, the new entry is chosen
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar41
42. DVR: Updating Table for “A”
To Cost Next
A 0 _
B 5 _
C 2 _
D 3 _
E ∞
To Cost
A 2
B 4
C 0
D ∞
E 4
To Cost Next
A 4 C
B 6 C
C 2 C
D ∞ C
E 6 C
To Cost Next
A 0 _
B 5 _
C 2 _
D 3 _
E 6 C
Old Table of “A”Table
Received
from “C”
Modified
Table of “A”
New Table of “A”
Compare
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar42
43. DVR: The Finalized Tables
To Cost Next
A 0 _
B 5 _
C 2 _
D 3 _
E 6 C
A
C
B
ED
5
3
2 4
3
4
To Cost Next
A 3 _
B 8 A
C 5 A
D 0 _
E 9 A
To Cost Next
A 5 _
B 0 _
C 4 _
D 8 A
E 3 _
To Cost Next
A 6 C
B 3 _
C 4 _
D 9 C
E 0 _
To Cost Next
A 2 _
B 4 _
C 0 _
D 5 A
E 4 _
Table of “A” Table of “B”
Table of “C”
Table of “D” Table of “E”
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar43
44. DVR: Two Node Loop Instability
X A B
XX
X
X
A
AA
A
B
B
B
B
2 4
4
4
4
4
.
.
.
X 2 _
X ∞ _
X 10 B
X 10 B
X ∞ _
X 6 A X 14 A
X 6 A
X 6 A
X ∞ _
Before
Failure
After
Failure
After A
receives
update
from B
After B
receives
update
from A
Finally
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar44
45. DVR: Preventing Instability
Defining ‘INFINITY’: Infinity should be defined as a
smaller number say, 100. In RIP ‘Infinity’ is often
defined as 16. So, the network can’t have more than
15 hops anywhere.
Split Horizon: Each node sends only part of its table
through each interface. In our case, B would not
advertize its part of the table to A which contains
information about X (i.e. the route of X is through A,
so A already knows).
Split Horizon & Poison Reverse: While sharing its
table with A, B will add a tag to the route information
of X (i.e. “I know this route comes from you. Please
do not use this value”).
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar45
46. Routing Information Protocol
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is an
implementation of ‘Distance Vector Algorithm’ with
the following considerations:
1. In an autonomous system, we are dealing with
routers and networks (links). Only routers have
routing tables, networks not
2. The destination in a routing table is a network
always
3. The metric used by RIP is the no of hops
needed to reach the destination
4. Infinity is defined as 16
5. The next-node column defines the address of
the router to which packet is to be sent
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar46
47. Link State Routing
Domain Topology: Here, each node in the domain has
an entire topology of the domain
Link State: For each node, the number of other links
and nodes, their connectivity type, cost (metric) and
the condition of the links (Up or Down) constitutes link
state
Shortest Path Tree: Based on the link states, a node
can use Dijkstra’s Algorithm to create a ‘Shortest Path
Tree’ which can used as the routing table
There are four sets of operations required
Creation of Link State Packets (LSPs)
Flooding of LSPs
Formation of shortest path tree
Calculation of routing based on the tree
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar47
48. Link State Routing:
A
C
B
ED
5
3
2 4
State of
Links
for “A”
Initial Condition:
D
A B
E
5
2
3
3
2 4
4
5
4
3
34
3
State of
Links
for “D”
State of
Links
for “B”
State of
Links
for “E”
State of
Links
for “C”
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar48
49. Link State Routing:
Dijkstra’s Algorithm: Formation of Shortest Path Tree
START
STOP
Tentative list
is empty?
Set root to local node and
move it to tentative list
Among nodes in tentative list, move the
ones with shortest path to permanent list
Add each unprocessed neighbor of last
moved node to tentative list if it is not there
already. If neighbor is in tentative list with
larger cumulative cost, replace with new one
YES
NO
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar49
50. Link State Routing:
A B
0
1. Set root to A and move A to tentative list
Creation of Shortest Path Tree for node A:
A
Permanent List: Empty Tentative List: A(0)
Root
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar50
51. Link State Routing:
A B
0
2. Move A to permanent List. Add B, C, D to tentative list
Creation of Shortest Path Tree for node A:
A
Permanent List: A(0) Tentative List: B(5), C(2), D(3)
Root
5B
2 C
3 D
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar51
52. Link State Routing:
A B
0
3. Move C to permanent List. Add E tentative list
Creation of Shortest Path Tree for node A:
A
Permanent List: A(0), C(2) Tentative List: B(5), D(3), E(6)
Root
5B
2 C
3 D 6E
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar52
53. Link State Routing:
A B
0
4. Move D to permanent List.
Creation of Shortest Path Tree for node A:
A
Permanent List: A(0), C(2), D(3) Tentative List: B(5), E(6)
Root
5B
2 C
3 D 6E
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar53
54. Link State Routing:
A B
0
5. Move B to permanent List.
Creation of Shortest Path Tree for node A:
A
Permanent List: A(0), B(5), C(2), D(3) Tentative List: E(6)
Root
5B
2 C
3 D 6E
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar54
55. Link State Routing:
A B
0
6. Move E to permanent List.
Creation of Shortest Path Tree for node A:
A
Permanent List: A(0), B(5), C(2), D(3), E(6) Tentative List:
Empty
Root
5B
2 C
3 D 6E
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar55
56. Link State Routing:
Calculation of Routing Table from Shortest Path Tree
Node Cost Next
A 0 _
B 5 _
C 2 _
D 3 _
E 6 C
Routing table for node A
We can see that the
routing table of A as
deduced by Link State
Routing is the same as
Distance Vector Routing
In real scenario, the
routing table is
determined by the cost
assigned to each node by
the administrator
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar56
57. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
OSPF is based on Link State Routing Protocol
Area: A collection of networks, hosts and routers all
contained within an autonomous system
Area Border Routers: Summarizes all the information
about an area and shares it across
Backbone: A special area among all areas in an AS
which all other areas must be connected to. The
backbone always has area code ‘0’
Backbone Routers: Routers in a backbone. A
backbone router can also be area border router
Virtual Link: If the connection between an area and
backbone is broken the administrator can create an
alternate connection between routers
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar57
58. OSPF: Implementation
net net net
net
net
net
net
net net
net
Area 1
Area 2
Area 0 (Backbone)
ABRABR
BR
BR
AS BR
Autonomous System (AS)
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar58
59. Path Vector Routing
Why DVR and LSR are not suitable for inter-domain
routing?
Reason: Scalability
DVR becomes instable and intractable for a large
number of hops (even more than 16)
LSR needs a huge amount of resource to calculate
its shortest paths. It also causes heavy traffic in the
network because of flooding of LSP
How path vector routing eliminates them?
Well, it is simply derived from DVR, but does not
assign hop count as the metric/cost...
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar59
60. Path Vector Routing
Speaker node: In path vector routing, a special
node acts on behalf on the entire AS. It summarizes
all the information of that AS, creates a routing
table and advertizes it to other ASs
What is advertized?
Not the metrics but the paths in an AS
Policy: Every AS will have a well defined policy
Paths are decided upon by the speaker nodes by
consulting the policies in neighboring ASs
Reason: Different ASs will have different policies &
priorities associated with them
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar60
61. Path Vector Routing
Initialization: At the beginning each SN knows only
about all other nodes inside its AS
Sharing: Just as in DVR, the speaker nodes will
then share their tables with immediate neighbors
periodically or on trigger
Updating: On receiving a two column table from
neighbor, a speaker node will update its table by
adding the nodes not present in its routing table as
well as adding its own AS and other ASs that sent
the table
Loop Prevention
Policy Routing
Optimum Path
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar61
64. Path Vector Routing
Some important features of updating:
Loop Prevention: The instability of DVR is avoided in
PVR; upon receiving a message the router checks to
see if its AS is in the path
Policy Routing: Upon receiving a message a router
checks the path with policy. If an AS in the path is
against policy it can ignore that
Optimum path: Router find the path that fits the
organization best. A path from AS4 to AS1 can either
be AS4->AS3->AS2->AS1 or AS4->AS3->AS1. Here
we will choose the path with less number of ASs
involved
This is not a general rule. There are complex criteria which
are always involved in real scenario
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar64
65. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
BGP was introduced in 1989
Some features of BGP:
Types of AS
Stub AS: An AS which is connected to another AS. A
stub is either a source or a sink
Multihomed AS: An AS which is connected to more
than one AS, but it is only a sink or source. Example:
A large corporation which is connected to more than
one regional or national ASs
Transit AS: A multihomed AS that allows flow of data
traffic through it. Example: All national and
international ISPs
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar65
66. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
Some features of BGP:
Path Attributes
Well known attribute: Every BGP router must recognize
Well known mandatory attribute: It must appear in the
description of a route; e.g. origin, next-hop
Well known discretionary attribute: It must be recognized but
need not be included always in update
Optional Attribute: Need not be recognized by all BGP
routers
Optional transitive attribute: It must be passed to the next router
by the router that has not implemented it
Optional non-transitive attribute: It must be discarded if the
receiving router has not implemented it
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar66
67. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
Some features of BGP:
BGP Sessions: A BGP session is a connection setup
between two BGP routers for the sake of exchanging
router information
A session in BGP is a connection at the TCP level.
External BGP Session (E-BGP): Takes place when two speaker
nodes exchange routing information
Internal BGP Session (I-BGP): Takes place when a speaker
node collects information from other nodes in the its own As
A1
A2 A3
A4 A5
AS1
C1
C2 C3
AS3
December 7, 2009Tusharadri Sarkar67