The primitive blueprint for the heart and circulatory system emerged with the arrival of the third mesodermal germ layer in bilaterians. Since then, hearts in animals have evolved from a single layered tube to a multiple chambered heart in due course of time.
Evolutionary change in heart of vertebrates
Heart is situated ventral to the oseophagus in the pericardial section of the coelom.
Heart is a highly muscular pumping organ that pumps blood into arteries and sucks it back through the veins.
In vertebrates it has undergone transformation by twisting from a straight tube to a complex multi-chambered organ.
. There has been an increase in the number of chambers in heart during evolution of vertebrates.
The heart is covered by a transparent protective covering, called pericardium. It is a single layer in fish.
Within pericardium there is a pericardial fluid, protects the heart from the external injury.
The evolution of the heart is based on the separation of oxygenated blood from deoxygenated blood for efficient oxygen transport.
INTRODUCTION
The term urogenital refers to something that has both urinary and genital origins. The word urogenital is used because the urinary and reproductive systems in males merge.
These are grouped together because of their proximity to each other, their common embryological origin and the use of common pathways (ex. urethra).
Kidneys and urinary ducts form the urinary system.
The Urinary system performs two important homeostatic processes like excretion and osmoregulation. This system is intimately associated both anatomically, and in terms of embryonic origin with the genital system.
The genital system includes the gonads which generate gametes and the genital ducts that serve as passages for the gametes.
Though functionally different the two organ systems the urinary and the genital system are treated together as the urino- genital system, since both develop from the same segmental blocks of trunk mesoderm or adjacent tissues and share many of the ducts.
Thus although the two systems have nothing common functionally they are closely associated in their use of common ducts and are studied under the broad heading of urinogenital system.
The function of the excretory system is crucial in considering the possible environment of the ‘vertebrate life ’. Several main functions can be attributed to all vertebrate excretory systems:
Excretion of nitrogenous waste products.
Maintaining homeostasis with regard to ions (i.e. salt balance).
Regaining valuable substances (glucose, salts, amino acids, etc.)
Maintaining a physiological osmotic value (i.e. water balance).
The excretory system is formed by a series of paired, segmental nephrons that begin with a nephrostome opening into the coelomic cavity.
A pair of glomeruli per segment, supplied by branches from the aorta, projects into the coelomic cavity close to these nephrostomes.
At a later stage of development, the glomerulus/nephrostome area becomes separated from the rest of the coelomic cavity by an epithelial fold.
The nephrons connect to a duct that is formed by caudal growth of the most anterior nephric tubules. These paired urinary ducts open near the anal region.
The basic fundamental plan of the aortic arches is similar in different vertebrates during embryonic stages.
But in adult the condition of the arrangement is changed either being lost or modified considerably.
The number of aortic arches is gradually reduced as the scale of evolution of vertebrates is ascended.
The embryonic aortic arches were basically six pairs.
But with progressive evolution , there has been consequent reduction in numbers of aortic arches.
In the basic pattern the major arterial channels consists of
A ventral aorta emerging from the heart and passing forward beneath the pharynx
A dorsal aorta paired above the pharynx and passing caudal above the digestive tract.
Six pairs of aortic arches connecting ventral aorta to with the dorsal aorta.
1st aortic arch= Mandibular aortic arch
2nd Aortic arch= hyoid aortic arch
3rd ,4th ,5th and 6th aortic arches in case of aquatic animal , known as branchial aortic arches.
Evolutionary change in heart of vertebrates
Heart is situated ventral to the oseophagus in the pericardial section of the coelom.
Heart is a highly muscular pumping organ that pumps blood into arteries and sucks it back through the veins.
In vertebrates it has undergone transformation by twisting from a straight tube to a complex multi-chambered organ.
. There has been an increase in the number of chambers in heart during evolution of vertebrates.
The heart is covered by a transparent protective covering, called pericardium. It is a single layer in fish.
Within pericardium there is a pericardial fluid, protects the heart from the external injury.
The evolution of the heart is based on the separation of oxygenated blood from deoxygenated blood for efficient oxygen transport.
INTRODUCTION
The term urogenital refers to something that has both urinary and genital origins. The word urogenital is used because the urinary and reproductive systems in males merge.
These are grouped together because of their proximity to each other, their common embryological origin and the use of common pathways (ex. urethra).
Kidneys and urinary ducts form the urinary system.
The Urinary system performs two important homeostatic processes like excretion and osmoregulation. This system is intimately associated both anatomically, and in terms of embryonic origin with the genital system.
The genital system includes the gonads which generate gametes and the genital ducts that serve as passages for the gametes.
Though functionally different the two organ systems the urinary and the genital system are treated together as the urino- genital system, since both develop from the same segmental blocks of trunk mesoderm or adjacent tissues and share many of the ducts.
Thus although the two systems have nothing common functionally they are closely associated in their use of common ducts and are studied under the broad heading of urinogenital system.
The function of the excretory system is crucial in considering the possible environment of the ‘vertebrate life ’. Several main functions can be attributed to all vertebrate excretory systems:
Excretion of nitrogenous waste products.
Maintaining homeostasis with regard to ions (i.e. salt balance).
Regaining valuable substances (glucose, salts, amino acids, etc.)
Maintaining a physiological osmotic value (i.e. water balance).
The excretory system is formed by a series of paired, segmental nephrons that begin with a nephrostome opening into the coelomic cavity.
A pair of glomeruli per segment, supplied by branches from the aorta, projects into the coelomic cavity close to these nephrostomes.
At a later stage of development, the glomerulus/nephrostome area becomes separated from the rest of the coelomic cavity by an epithelial fold.
The nephrons connect to a duct that is formed by caudal growth of the most anterior nephric tubules. These paired urinary ducts open near the anal region.
The basic fundamental plan of the aortic arches is similar in different vertebrates during embryonic stages.
But in adult the condition of the arrangement is changed either being lost or modified considerably.
The number of aortic arches is gradually reduced as the scale of evolution of vertebrates is ascended.
The embryonic aortic arches were basically six pairs.
But with progressive evolution , there has been consequent reduction in numbers of aortic arches.
In the basic pattern the major arterial channels consists of
A ventral aorta emerging from the heart and passing forward beneath the pharynx
A dorsal aorta paired above the pharynx and passing caudal above the digestive tract.
Six pairs of aortic arches connecting ventral aorta to with the dorsal aorta.
1st aortic arch= Mandibular aortic arch
2nd Aortic arch= hyoid aortic arch
3rd ,4th ,5th and 6th aortic arches in case of aquatic animal , known as branchial aortic arches.
ORIGIN OF CHORDATES
Animal kingdom is basically divided into two sub kingdoms:
Non-chordata- including animals without notochord.
Chordata- This comprising animals having notochord or chorda dorsalis.
Chordates were evolved sometime 500 million years ago during Cambrian period (invertebrates were also began to evolve in this period) .
Chamberlain (1900) pointed out that all modern chordates possess glomerular kidneys that are designed to remove excess water from body.
It is believed that Chordates have originated from invertebrates.
It is difficult to determine from which invertebrate group the chordates were developed.
Chordate ancestors were soft bodied animals. Hence they were not preserved as Fossils.
However, early fossils of chordates have all been recovered from marine sediments and even modern protochordates are all marine forms.
Also glomerular kidneys are also found in some marine forms such as myxinoids and sharks. That makes the marine origin of chordates more believable.
Chordates evolved from some deuterostome ancestor (echinoderms, hemichordates, pogonophorans etc.) as they have similarities in embryonic development, type of coelom and larval stages.
Many theories infers origin of chordates, hemichordates and echinoderms from a common ancestor.
The vertebrate brain
The vertebrate brain is the main part of the central nervous system. The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system,
In most of the vertebrates the brain is at the front, in the head. It is protected by the skull and close to the main sense organs.
Brains are extremely complex and the part of human and animal body. The brain controls the other organs of the body, either by activating muscles or by causing secretion of chemicals such as hormones and neurotransmitters.
Muscular action allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment.
The brain of an adult human weights about 1300–1400 grams .
In vertebrates, the spinal cord by itself can cause reflex responses as well as simple movement such as swimming or walking. However, sophisticated control of behaviour requires a centralized brain.
The structure of all vertebrate brains is basically the same.
At the same time, during the course of evolution, the vertebrate brain has undergone changes, and become more effective.
In so-called 'lower' animals, most or all of the brain structure is inherited, and therefore their behaviour is mostly instinctive.
In mammals, and especially in man, the brain is developed further during life by learning. This has the benefit of helping them fit better into their environment. The capacity to learn is seen best in the cerebral cortex.
Three principles
The brain and nervous system is essentially a system which makes connections. It has input from sense organs and output to muscles. It is connected in several ways with the endocrine system, which makes hormones, and the digestive system and sex system. Hormones work slowly, so those changes are gradual.
The brain is a kind of department store. It has, all inter-connected, departments which do different things. They all help each other gather senses.
Much of what the body does is not conscious. Basically, much of the body runs on automatic (breathing, heart beat, hungry, hair growth) adjusted by the autonomic nervous system. The brain, too, does much of its work without a person noticing it. The unconscious mind refers to the brain activities which are hardly ever noticed.
Affinities of Dipnoi or lungfishes towards fishes and amphibians and their phylogenetic relationship and position with respect to Chordates diversification.
They are not the father of amphibians rather they are the uncle of amphibians.
They might have originated from Latimaria like ancestor.
Moreover it is now confirmed that Dipnoi, Crossopterygii and Labirynthodint amphibians are originated from the common ancestor.
Air sacs are thin walled non-muscular,non-vascular,non-elastic and bladder like membrane connected to the lungs
Air sacs are only the inflated extensions of the mucous membrane of some blindly ending bronchioles
Some of them extended to bones
In pigeon there are nine major air sacs
One of them is unpaired and others are paired
Unpaired air sac is interclavicular
Paired sac include cervical,anterior thoracic,posterior thoracic and abdominal air sacs
Abdominal and posterior thoracic sacs get filled with fresh air during inspiration.so they are called inspiratory air sacs
Others get filled with fresh air during expiration
Accssory respiratiory organs in fishesaadiihussain
Gills are primary respiratory organs in fishes, Extra branchial respiration is highly useful for survival when oxygen supplied by gills is not sufficient.
INTRODUCTION
The jaw (Upper and lower) is any opposable articulated structure at the entrance of the mouth.
It is typically used for grasping and manipulating food.
Jaw suspension means the fusion of upper jaw and lower jaw or skull for efficient biting.
There are different ways in which these attachments are attained depending upon the modifications in visceral arches in vertebrates.
In most vertebrates, the jaws are bony or cartilaginous and oppose vertically.
The vertebrate jaw is derived from the most anterior two pharyngeal arches supporting the gills, and usually bears numerous teeth.
The vertebrate jaw probably originally evolved in the Silurian period and appeared in the Placoderm fish which further diversified in the Devonian.
It is believed that the hyoid system suspends the jaw from the brain case of the skull, permitting great mobility of the jaws.
The original selective advantage offered by the jaw may not be related to feeding, but rather to increased respiration efficiency.
The jaws were used in the buccal pump (observable in modern fish and amphibians) that pumps water across the gills of fish or air into the lungs in the case of amphibians.
Over evolutionary time the more familiar use of jaws (to humans), in feeding, was selected for and became a very important function in vertebrates. Many teleost fish have substantially modified jaws for suction feeding and jaw protrusion, resulting in highly complex jaws with dozens of bones involved.
Jaw Suspension or Suspensoria:
The method by which the upper and lower jaws are suspended or attached from the chondrocranium is known as jaw suspension or suspensorium.
Amongst the visceral arches, the first (mandibular) arch consists of
= a dorsal palato pterygoquadrate bar forming the upper jaw,
= and ventral Meckel’s cartilage forms the lower jaw.
The second (hyoid) arch consists of = a dorsal hyomandibular supporting and suspending the jaws with the cranium, and a ventral hyoid.
The remaining visceral arches support the gills and are, hence, called branchial arches. Thus, splanchnocranium forms the jaws and suspends them with the chondrocranium.
Taxonomic Collections, Preservation and Curating of InsectsKamlesh Patel
Taxonomy: Taxonomy is the science of defining and naming groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics.
The classification of organisms is according to hierarchal system or in taxonomic ranks (eg; domain, kingdom, phylum class, order, family, genus and species) based on phylogenetic relationship established by genetic analysis.
Taxonomic Collection : Biological collection are typically preserved plant or animals specimens along with specimen documentations such as labels and notations.
Dry Collection - Dry collections consist of those specimens that are preserved in a dry state.
Wet Collection - Wet collections are specimens kept in a liquid preservative to prevent their deterioration.
ORIGIN OF CHORDATES
Animal kingdom is basically divided into two sub kingdoms:
Non-chordata- including animals without notochord.
Chordata- This comprising animals having notochord or chorda dorsalis.
Chordates were evolved sometime 500 million years ago during Cambrian period (invertebrates were also began to evolve in this period) .
Chamberlain (1900) pointed out that all modern chordates possess glomerular kidneys that are designed to remove excess water from body.
It is believed that Chordates have originated from invertebrates.
It is difficult to determine from which invertebrate group the chordates were developed.
Chordate ancestors were soft bodied animals. Hence they were not preserved as Fossils.
However, early fossils of chordates have all been recovered from marine sediments and even modern protochordates are all marine forms.
Also glomerular kidneys are also found in some marine forms such as myxinoids and sharks. That makes the marine origin of chordates more believable.
Chordates evolved from some deuterostome ancestor (echinoderms, hemichordates, pogonophorans etc.) as they have similarities in embryonic development, type of coelom and larval stages.
Many theories infers origin of chordates, hemichordates and echinoderms from a common ancestor.
The vertebrate brain
The vertebrate brain is the main part of the central nervous system. The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system,
In most of the vertebrates the brain is at the front, in the head. It is protected by the skull and close to the main sense organs.
Brains are extremely complex and the part of human and animal body. The brain controls the other organs of the body, either by activating muscles or by causing secretion of chemicals such as hormones and neurotransmitters.
Muscular action allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment.
The brain of an adult human weights about 1300–1400 grams .
In vertebrates, the spinal cord by itself can cause reflex responses as well as simple movement such as swimming or walking. However, sophisticated control of behaviour requires a centralized brain.
The structure of all vertebrate brains is basically the same.
At the same time, during the course of evolution, the vertebrate brain has undergone changes, and become more effective.
In so-called 'lower' animals, most or all of the brain structure is inherited, and therefore their behaviour is mostly instinctive.
In mammals, and especially in man, the brain is developed further during life by learning. This has the benefit of helping them fit better into their environment. The capacity to learn is seen best in the cerebral cortex.
Three principles
The brain and nervous system is essentially a system which makes connections. It has input from sense organs and output to muscles. It is connected in several ways with the endocrine system, which makes hormones, and the digestive system and sex system. Hormones work slowly, so those changes are gradual.
The brain is a kind of department store. It has, all inter-connected, departments which do different things. They all help each other gather senses.
Much of what the body does is not conscious. Basically, much of the body runs on automatic (breathing, heart beat, hungry, hair growth) adjusted by the autonomic nervous system. The brain, too, does much of its work without a person noticing it. The unconscious mind refers to the brain activities which are hardly ever noticed.
Affinities of Dipnoi or lungfishes towards fishes and amphibians and their phylogenetic relationship and position with respect to Chordates diversification.
They are not the father of amphibians rather they are the uncle of amphibians.
They might have originated from Latimaria like ancestor.
Moreover it is now confirmed that Dipnoi, Crossopterygii and Labirynthodint amphibians are originated from the common ancestor.
Air sacs are thin walled non-muscular,non-vascular,non-elastic and bladder like membrane connected to the lungs
Air sacs are only the inflated extensions of the mucous membrane of some blindly ending bronchioles
Some of them extended to bones
In pigeon there are nine major air sacs
One of them is unpaired and others are paired
Unpaired air sac is interclavicular
Paired sac include cervical,anterior thoracic,posterior thoracic and abdominal air sacs
Abdominal and posterior thoracic sacs get filled with fresh air during inspiration.so they are called inspiratory air sacs
Others get filled with fresh air during expiration
Accssory respiratiory organs in fishesaadiihussain
Gills are primary respiratory organs in fishes, Extra branchial respiration is highly useful for survival when oxygen supplied by gills is not sufficient.
INTRODUCTION
The jaw (Upper and lower) is any opposable articulated structure at the entrance of the mouth.
It is typically used for grasping and manipulating food.
Jaw suspension means the fusion of upper jaw and lower jaw or skull for efficient biting.
There are different ways in which these attachments are attained depending upon the modifications in visceral arches in vertebrates.
In most vertebrates, the jaws are bony or cartilaginous and oppose vertically.
The vertebrate jaw is derived from the most anterior two pharyngeal arches supporting the gills, and usually bears numerous teeth.
The vertebrate jaw probably originally evolved in the Silurian period and appeared in the Placoderm fish which further diversified in the Devonian.
It is believed that the hyoid system suspends the jaw from the brain case of the skull, permitting great mobility of the jaws.
The original selective advantage offered by the jaw may not be related to feeding, but rather to increased respiration efficiency.
The jaws were used in the buccal pump (observable in modern fish and amphibians) that pumps water across the gills of fish or air into the lungs in the case of amphibians.
Over evolutionary time the more familiar use of jaws (to humans), in feeding, was selected for and became a very important function in vertebrates. Many teleost fish have substantially modified jaws for suction feeding and jaw protrusion, resulting in highly complex jaws with dozens of bones involved.
Jaw Suspension or Suspensoria:
The method by which the upper and lower jaws are suspended or attached from the chondrocranium is known as jaw suspension or suspensorium.
Amongst the visceral arches, the first (mandibular) arch consists of
= a dorsal palato pterygoquadrate bar forming the upper jaw,
= and ventral Meckel’s cartilage forms the lower jaw.
The second (hyoid) arch consists of = a dorsal hyomandibular supporting and suspending the jaws with the cranium, and a ventral hyoid.
The remaining visceral arches support the gills and are, hence, called branchial arches. Thus, splanchnocranium forms the jaws and suspends them with the chondrocranium.
Taxonomic Collections, Preservation and Curating of InsectsKamlesh Patel
Taxonomy: Taxonomy is the science of defining and naming groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics.
The classification of organisms is according to hierarchal system or in taxonomic ranks (eg; domain, kingdom, phylum class, order, family, genus and species) based on phylogenetic relationship established by genetic analysis.
Taxonomic Collection : Biological collection are typically preserved plant or animals specimens along with specimen documentations such as labels and notations.
Dry Collection - Dry collections consist of those specimens that are preserved in a dry state.
Wet Collection - Wet collections are specimens kept in a liquid preservative to prevent their deterioration.
Join live classes, download study aids, sell your documents, join or host your own classes online, get tutoring, tutor students, take practices tests and more at Examville.com
Science teaching is a complex activity that lies at the heart of the vision of science education presented in the Standards. The teaching standards provide criteria for making judgments about progress toward the vision; they describe what teachers of science at all grade levels should understand and be able to do.
Life of every organism depends on certain basic processes. Excretion is one among them. Different organisms follow different modes of excretion. In complex organisms including humans, there is a specialized system for excretion called human excretory system.
Cell Signaling is a phenomenon in which cells receive and respond to the signals or chemical messages from their internal environment or from the neighbouring cells.
Flight in bird is one of the most complex forms of locomotion in the animal kingdom. Flight in birds includes hovering, taking off and landing which involves many complex movements.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
2. Development of Heart in Vertebrates
The heart is a muscular organ in most animals, which
pumps blood through the blood vessels of the circulatory system.
Heart may be a straight tube, as in spiders and annelids, or
somewhat more elaborate structure with one or more receiving
chambers (atria) and a main pumping chamber (ventricle) as in
mollusks.
In fishes the heart is a folded tube, with three or four enlarged areas
that correspond to the chambers in the mammalian heart.
In animals with lungs like amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals, the heart shows various stages of evolution from a single
to a double pump that circulates blood to the lungs and to the body
as a whole.
2
Pranabjyoti Das
3. The cardiovascular system is one of the first body systems to
appear within the embryo. The heart is an unpaired organ but its
origin is bilateral. In an embryo the mesenchyme forms a group
of endocardial cells below the pharynx. These cells become
arranged to form a pair of thin endothelial tubes. The two
endothelial tubes soon fuse to form a single endocardial tube
lying longitudinally below the pharynx.
3
Pranabjyoti Das
4. The splanchnic mesoderm lying below the endoderm gets folded
longitudinally around the endocardial tube. This two-layered tube
will form the heart in which the splanchnic mesoderm thickens to
form a myocardium or muscular wall of the heart and an outer
thin epicardium or visceral pericardium. The endocardial tube
becomes the lining of the heart known as endocardium.
4
Pranabjyoti Das
5. Folds of splanchnic mesoderm meet above to form a dorsal
mesocardium which suspends the heart in the coelom. Soon a
transverse septum is formed behind the heart which divides the
coelom into two chambers, an anterior pericardial cavity
enclosing the heart and a posterior abdominal cavity.
5
Pranabjyoti Das
6. Originally the heart is a
straight tube but it
starts increasing in its
length and becomes S-
shaped because its ends
are fixed.
Appearance of valves,
constriction, partitions
in the heart and
differential thickenings
of its walls form three or
four chambers in the
heart
6
Pranabjyoti Das
7. Primitive Heart Tube
The development of the heart
begins with the formation of
the primitive heart tube by
following the folding of the
embryo.
At first lateral folding creates
the heart tube by bringing
together two precursor regions,
and then cephalocaudal folding
positions the heart tube in the
future thorax.
7
Pranabjyoti Das
8. Initially, the heart tube is suspended within the pericardial cavity
by a membrane which subsequently degenerates to allow for
further growth. From superior to inferior, the primitive heart tube
is now comprised of six distinct regions.
They are…
1. Aortic roots
2. Truncus arteriosus
3. Bulbus cordis
4. Ventricle
5. Atrium
6. Sinus venosus
8
Pranabjyoti Das
9. The heart tube continues to elongate, and begins looping during
its development. The bulbus cordis first moves ventrally, then
caudally, and to the right. The caudal portion, i.e. the primitive
ventricle starts moveing dorsally, cranially and finally to the left
This process produces an S-shape that is much closer to the fully
developed heart.
9
Pranabjyoti Das
10. HEART TUBE
In the 1st diagram the right and left endothelial heart tubes are
seen. And in the 2nd diagram we can see that these two tubes
have fused together form a single tube.
The single tube shows series of dilatation like Bulbus Cordis,
Primitive Ventricle, Primitive Atrium and Sinus Venosus
10
Pranabjyoti Das
11. BULBUSCORDIS
Lies at arterial end of heart , it is
divisible into:
Proximal Part = Conus
Distal Part = Truncus arteriosus
Truncus arteriosus continuous
distally with aortic sac.
Aortic Sac is continuous distally
with right and left pharyngeal arch
arteries.
Arteries arch backwards to become
continuous with right and left dorsal
aortae.
11
Pranabjyoti Das
12. SINUS VENOSUS
Lies at venous end of
heart, it has right and
left prolongations
(horns) of sinus
venosus.
Each Horns are joined by:
One vitelline vein
One umbilical vein
One common cardinal vein
12
Pranabjyoti Das
13. FORMATION OF ATRIA
(SINU-ATRIALORIFICE)
Sinus venosus and primitive
atrial chamber are 1st
connected by wide opening.
Gradually opening becomes
narrow & shifts to right.
Finally becomes a narrow
slit. The slit has right & left
margins known as right &
left venous valves. Cranially
these 2 valve fuse to form
septum
13
Pranabjyoti Das
14. FORMATION OF ATRIA
(ATRIOVENTRICULAR CANAL)
2 thickenings
namely
atrioventricular
cushions appear on
dorsal and ventral
walls.
And they grow
towards each other
and fuse to form
septum intermedium.
By: Gan Quan Fu
14
Pranabjyoti Das
16. DEVELOPMENT OF LEFTATRIUM
During the beginning of
formation of septum primum,
a single pulmonary vein opens
into left half of atrium.
This pulmonary vein divides
into left and right branches.
Gradually the parts of
pulmonary veins nearest to left
atrium are absorbed into the
atrium resulting in 4 separate
veins
16
Pranabjyoti Das
17. SEPARATION OF AORTA
Spiral Septum appears within truncus arteriosus and
subdivides it into ascending aorta and pulmonary arteries.
They fuse along the axis of the cylinder extending down
towards the ventricles.
Interventricular foramen obliterated by mass of endocardial
tissues from interventricular septum, endocardial cushions &
Spiral Septum.
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18. DEVELOPMENT OFVENTRICLES
(INTERVENTRICULAR SEPTUM)
Conus of bulbus cordis merge with cavity
of primitive ventricle.
Interventricular septum grows upwards
from the floor of bulbo- ventricular cavity &
divide it into right & left halves.
Two ridges from the wall of the conical part
of bulbar cavity grows towards each other
and fuse form bulbar septum.
The gap between upper edge of
interventricular septum and lower edge
of bulbar septum is filled by cushions.
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19. Single-Chambered Heart
In Amphioxus (primitive chordate), a true heart is not found. A
part of ventral aorta beneath the pharynx is muscular and
contractile in nature. This muscular body in amphioxus acts as a
heart.
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20. The heart of fish has only two chambers, namely an auricle and ventricle.
On the dorsal side of the auricle there is a sac-like sinuous which receives
blood from all parts of the body. This sinuous opens into the auricle by an
aperture. Auricle communicate with the ventricle.
Ventricle is continued ventrally and forward by another swollen part called
conus arteriosus. Conus arteriosus extend forward as the ventral aorta
Two Chambered Heart
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21. In cyclostomes, there are four chambers arranged in a linear order- a
thin-walled sinus venosus, a slightly muscular atrium (auricle), a muscular
ventricle and a muscular conus arteriosus or bulbus cordis. It lies in the body
cavity in which other visceral organs are also present. Out of four chambers,
only atrium and ventricle correspond to the four chambers of the higher
vertebrates. In the evolution of heart many changes have taken place.
Two-Chambered Heart
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22. The heart of frog (amphibians) has 2 auricles and one ventricle.
2 auricles are seperted by an interauricular septum.
Sinus venosus on the dorsal side, opens into the right auricle
through the sinu- auricular aperature.
Left auricle- contains oxygenated blood.
The 2 auricles open into the only ventricle by a common aperature
which is guarded by the auriculo-ventricular valve
Three Chambered Heart
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23. Three Chambered Heart
In amphibians, the dorsal atrium shifts anterior to ventricle. The sinus venosus
opens into right atrium dorsally and not posteriorly. The atrium is completely
divided into right and left chambers and has no foramen ovale in the inter-
auricular septum, which remains open in dipnoans. Deep pockets develop in
the ventricular cavity. The conus arteriosus divides into systemic and
pulmonary vessels by a spiral valve. In lung less salamanders, the inter- atrial
septum is incomplete and pulmonary veins are absent.
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24. Avian heart
(Four chambered)
Birds have a 4-chambered heart with 2 atria and 2 ventricles,
with complete separation of oxygenated and de-oxygenated
blood.
The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs, while the left
ventricle pumps blood to the rest of the body.
The three vena cavae or two precavals and a post caval empty
the blood directly into the right auricle. The left auricle receives
four pulmonary veins from the lungs.
The right auriculo ventricular aperture is guarded by two large
muscular flap like valve and the left by three valves.
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25. Heart of a Bird
In birds, the ventricle is completely divided into two, so that the heart is four
chambered. There is complete separation of venous and arterial blood. The
systemic aorta leaves the left ventricle and carries blood to the head and body.
While the pulmonary artery leaves the right ventricle and carries blood to the
lungs for oxygenation.
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26. mammalian heart
(Four Chamber)
Heart is 4 chambered and completely divided into auricles and ventricles.
Right Auricle opens into RightVentricleby tricuspid valve.
Left Auricle opens into LeftVentricle by bicuspid valve.
Wall of heart is richly supplied by coronary arteries.
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28. Convergence is the tendency of independent species to
evolve similarly when yhey are subjected to the same
environmental conditions.
The primitive blueprint for the heart and circulatory system
emerged with the arrival of the third mesodermal germ layer
in bilaterally symetrical animals. Since then, they have
evolved from a single layered tube to a multiple chambered
heart in the course of time.
Although the heart is physiologically specific to the anatomy
of each individual species, it has evolved along the same
directional path.
conclusion
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