• Erikson (Eight stages) • Freud (the psychoanalytic approach) • Maslow (Needs Theory) Theories of development.

1. Outcomes
• The student must be able to demonstrate
the ability to differentiate between the
various developmental stages. This
applies to the theories of:
Erikson (Stages of development)
Freud (Psycho sexual development)
Maslow (Hierarchy of needs)
Piaget (Cognitive theory of development)
Kohlberg (Moral development)

2. Developmental
Theories
The developing person in
context
C. SETTLEY 2016

3. Erik Erikson
8 Stages of development theory
• A theory of development:
• Children’s abilities and behaviour change over time.
• Some changes are small and some dramatic.
• Continual process.
• Some theories emphasise that human development
takes place in stages.
• Not enough evidence to say which theory is correct.
• Agreement that development takes place continually.
• Thus the theories complement each other.

4. Erik Erikson
Stages of development theory
• Erik Erikson (1902-1994)- psychologist interested in
human development.
• Proposed that over a lifespan there are psychological
tasks that need to be undertaken (stage theory used as
framework for other theories).
• Many modern psychologists have been influenced by
Erikson’s work.
• He associated different chronological ages with
developmental tasks that are usually achieved at that
age.
• Described each as a psychological crisis which needs to
be resolved at each stage in order to move on
emotionally.

5. Erik Erikson
8 Stages of development theory
• BIRTH- 18 MONTHS- TRUST VS MISTRUST
• An infant is helpless.
• Dependent on others for his needs.
• During this stage, the infant learns whether the world in which he
lives can be trusted. When he is hungry and he cries, will he be fed?
When his bottoms are wet, will his diapers be changed? When he is
unwell or afraid, will he be comforted?
• If an infant's physical and emotional needs are met in a consistent
and caring way, he learns that his mother or caregiver can be
counted on and he develops an attitude of trust in people.
• If his needs are not met, an infant may become fearful and learns
not to trust the people around him.

6. Questions for discussion /
reflection
• In Singapore, some parents are leaving their babies in a
24-hour stay-in centre full-time for weeks or months; the
babies are looked after by trained nannies who are
rotated after three weeks to prevent babies from
becoming too attached to one person.
• What are some possible reasons why the centre does
not want a baby under its care to be attached to one
person (i.e., nanny)?
• Do you think it is good to prevent attachment? If yes,
why? If no, why not?

7. • 18 MONTHS – 3 YEARS- AUTONOMY VS SHAME
• The toddler realizes that he is a separate person with his
own desires and abilities.
• He wants to do things for himself without help.
• This push for autonomy is enhanced by muscular
maturation as toddlers try to use their developing
muscles to walk, climb, hop and jump and to explore
their environment.
• Potentially, toddlers can get into dangerous situations. Therefore,
parents have to balance the opposing virtues of encouragement and
restraint. If a toddler's efforts to do things on his own were frustrated
by over-protective parents then he may not have many opportunities
to develop autonomy. On the other hand, if a toddler was harshly
criticized for "accidents" (e.g., wetting, soiling, spilling or breaking
things) then he may develop doubt about his own abilities to tackle
new challenges.

8. • 3-6 YEARS- INITIATIVE VS GUILT
• Increased muscular, mental and language abilities set
the stage for more activities and questions.
• Curiosity and openness to learning. The favourite word
of pre-schoolers is "why." Parents who take time to
answer their preschoolers' questions reinforce their
intellectual initiative. But parents who see their children's
questions as a nuisance may stifle their initiative and
cause them to be too dependent on others and to be
ashamed of themselves.
• Imaginative play is the basic activity of this stage. The
preschooler explores and reenacts the different roles
and activities of people, both real (home life) and fictional
(often based on television).

9. Questions for discussion/
Reflection
• What are your views about
children acting out cartoon or action character
Give reasons for your view.
• Does violence portrayed on television
influence the attitudes and behaviour of
children who watch it?

10. • 6- PUBERTY-INDUSTRY VS INFERIORITY
• At the school-going stage, the child's world extends beyond the
home to the school. The emphasis is on academic performance.
There is a movement from play to work. Earlier the child could play
at activities with little or no attention given to the quality of results.
Now, he needs to perform and produce good results!
• The child soon learns that he can win recognition from parents,
teachers and peers by being proficient in his school work. The
attitudes and opinions of others become important. The school plays
a major role in the resolution of the developmental crisis of initiative
versus inferiority.
• If children are praised for doing their best and encouraged to finish
tasks then work enjoyment and industry may result. Children's
efforts to master school work help them to grow and form a positive
self-concept ... a sense of who they are.

11. • ADOLESCENCE- IDENTITY VS ROLE
CONFUSION
• Identity crisis
• The task of a feeling of identity. Consists
of three components:
• 1) Who am I?
• 2) To which groups do I belong?
• 3) What do I wish to achieve?

12. • EARLY ADULTHOOD- INTIMACY VS
ISOLATION
• Existential Question: Can I Love?
• The Intimacy vs. Isolation conflict is emphasized
around the age of 30. Young adults are still
eager to blend their identities with friends.
Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated due
to intimacy. We are afraid of rejections such as
being turned down or our partners breaking up
with us. We are familiar with pain and to some of
us rejection is so painful that our egos cannot
bear it.

13. • MIDDLE ADULTHOOD- GENERATIVITY VS
STAGNATION
• Existential Question: Can I Make My Life Count?
• Generativity is the concern of guiding the next
generation. Socially-valued work and disciplines are
expressions of generativity.
• The adult stage of generativity has broad application to
family, relationships, work, and society. “Generativity,
then is primarily the concern in establishing and guiding
the next generation... the concept is meant to include...
productivity and creativity”.

14. • LATER YEARS- INTEGRITY VS DESPAIR
• Is it Okay to Have Been Me?
• As we grow older and become senior citizens we tend to
slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired
person. It is during this time that we contemplate our
accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we
see ourselves as leading a successful life. If we see our
life as unproductive, or feel that we did not accomplish
our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and
develop despair, often leading to depression and
hopelessness.
• People look back on their lives.

15. Erik Erikson’s Stage Theory
Table 2.1,page 30 in Middleton
• This theory shows how the developing person adjusts to new demands from
the environment and from people in his or her life:
Approximate Age Developmental Task Psychological
Crisis/Outcome
Birth to 18 months Attachment to a reliable
and caring care giver.
Success leads to trust in
others, a lack leads to
mistrust.
Trust vs Mistrust
18 months – 3 years Gaining basic self control
of self and environment
(e.g. toilet training).
Success leads to feelings
of autonomy and
independence, but failure
leads to shame and doubt.
Autonomy vs Shame

16. Erik Erikson’s Stage Theory
Table 2.1,page 30 continued
Approximate Age Developmental Task Psychological
Crisis/Outcome
3-6 years Becoming purposeful and
directive. Children begin to
exert control over the
environment. Success will
lead to a sense of purpose,
but trying too hard will lead
to disappointment and guilt
Initiative vs Guilt
6- puberty Coping with demands of
schooling and relationships.
Success leads to feelings of
competence, but failure
leads to feelings of
inferiority
Industry vs Inferiority

17. Erik Erikson’s Stage Theory
Table 2.1,page 30 continued
Approximate Age Developmental Task Psychological
Crisis/Outcome
Adolescence Making the transition from
child to adult; developing a
sense of self and personal
identity. Success leads one
to stay true to oneself, but
failure leads to confusion
about roles and a weak
sense of self
Identity vs Role Confusion
Early Adulthood Forming intimate and
lasting relationships.
Success leads to strong
relationships, but failure
leads to isolation and
loneliness
Intimacy vs Isolation

18. Erik Erikson’s Stage Theory
Table 2.1,page 30 continued
Approximate Age Developmental Task Psychological
Crisis/Outcome
Middle Adulthood Fulfilling life goals that
involve family, career and
society; being concerned
about leaving a lasting
legacy for future
generations. Success leads
to feelings of achievement,
but failure leads to feelings
of uselessness
Generativity vs Stagnation
Later Years Looking back over one’s life
and accepting its meaning.
Success leads to feelings of
fulfillment, while failure
leads to despair and regret
Integrity vs Despair

19. Psychodynamic Approaches
(Freud)
Middleton, page 77

20. What is personality?
• Prominent characteristics
• Kind, patient, fun, honest, helpful
(examples)
• Note that people identify their positive
characteristics first
• Differences help define identities
• And helps us understand similarities and
differences

21. Psychodynamic Approaches
• Freud was the first born in his family and
treated with speciality like having his own
room to study
• Trained as a medical doctor
• Became interested in people with
emotional disturbances
• Believed it to be caused by psychological
conflicts

22. Psychodynamic Approaches
• Suggested 3 levels of awareness in
humans:
• - the conscious- includes one’s
awareness
• - the pre-conscious- memories, thoughts.
can be easily brought into consciousness
• - the unconscious- which Freud felt was
the largest part of the personality, but
difficult to access

23. Psychodynamic Approaches
• The unconscious contains painful desires
and thoughts that we do not want to let
into conscious awareness
• The goal of therapy is to bring this to
consciousness so it can be processed and
dealt with
• Freud suggested 3 imaginary structures or
dynamics within a person, each with a
function:

24. Psychodynamic Approaches
• 3 structures: id, ego, superego
• Id: the part we are born with, largely
unconscious and contains instincts and drives.
Operates according to the pleasure principle and
seeks immediate relief of tension.
• Ego: the rational part of our personality. It finds
socially acceptable ways to get needs met.
Operates on reality principle and controls the
instincts.

25. Psychodynamic Approaches
• Superego: develops out of the interaction
between children and their care givers. In this
process children learns about right and wrong,
develop a conscious. Rules become
internalised.
• Relationship between the personality structures:
The id provides the energy, the ego provides
control and the superego’s need to behave
correctly is being controlled by the ego.
• Defence Mechanisms- page 79

26. Developmental Approaches
Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Theory
• Erikson’s theory considers the way the
environment (both the family and broader
society) impacts on the individual’s
development.
• Helps determine their personality.
• The psycho-sexual theory also has an impact on
the personality of an individual.
• Freud stressed that the most important time for
development was from birth to puberty.

27. Developmental Approaches
Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Theory
• He felt that after puberty, there was no
significant development- that the core of the
personality is formed by five years of age.
• Freud understood the personality as being like a
closed system, with psychic energy called libido
moving around in the system and being invested
in different body parts as development
proceeds.

28. Developmental Approaches
Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Theory
• Freud believed that life was built on tension and
pleasure.
• He also believed that all tension was due to the
build up of libido (sexual energy) and that all
pleasure came from its discharge.

29. Developmental Approaches
Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Theory
• If there are ‘unresolved psychic conflicts’ during
development, some of the libido gets ‘left behind’ in that
body part and the person is seen as stuck at a particular
stage of development.
• As a person grows physically certain areas of their body
become important as sources of potential frustration,
pleasure or both.
• 4 stages plus an intermediate period.
• Libido: sexual desire

30. Developmental Approaches
Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Theory
• The Oral stage (1st
phase)
• - 1st
stage
• - from birth to 18 months
• - libido is invested in the mouth
• - at this age, the mouth is used to eat with
• - also receive emotional nurturance from the mother
• -the mouth is also used to explore the world- putting all
kinds of things in their mouths
• - parents may try to stop this from happening

31. Developmental Approaches
Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Theory
• The Oral stage
• - oral activities thus
include feeding and biting
• - these form the basis for
character traits
• - this fixation can lead to
an oral dependence
• Dependent on others for
emotional and physical
needs

32. Developmental Approaches
Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Theory
• The Oral stage
• The oral aggressive person:
• - such a person can be gullible and commonly passive
• - also known to overeat and often smokes
• - on the other hand this may lead to an aggressive
person, who is often sarcastic and argumentative

33. Developmental Approaches
Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Theory
• The Anal stage (2nd
stage)
• - begins during the second year of life
• - the libido moves from the mouth to the anus
• - which then becomes the main source of
pleasure
• - and potential conflict
• - the beginning of toilet training represents the
first attempt to control the child’s impulses

34. Developmental Approaches
Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Theory
• The Anal stage
• - for the child, defecation can bring pleasure and/or pain
• - in that; the parents want to control the time and place this happens
• - children thus can either withhold or release their feces. This is
where potential conflict occurs
• - if not resolved, the child may develop either an anal-retentive
(when children retain feces) or an anal-expulsive personality
• - anal retentive people are commonly mean and controlling; they
may welcome pain
• - anal expulsive people (who does not successfully take control over
their sphincter) are hostile and explosive, messy, disorganised,
careless and enjoy giving pain

35. Developmental Approaches
Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Theory
• Take a moment to think about yourself and
people you know. Can you identify elements of
the following personality? Write down the names
of the people you identify
• ORAL DEPENDENCE
• ORAL AGGRESSION
• ANAL RETENTIIVENESS
• ANAL EXPULSIVENESS

36. Developmental Approaches
Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Theory
• Phallic stage (3rd
phase)
• - from 3-6 years of age
• - focused on the genitals which become the site for both
pleasure and conflict
• - children begin to explore their genitals. This is when
they discover the pleasure
• - may be scolded by care givers for it though it is a
natural behaviour
• - Greek tragedy- oedipus complex/electra complex
• - reflected in developmental stages

37. Developmental Approaches
Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Theory
• Phallic stage
• - little boys may feel more fond of their mothers
• - may experience their fathers as competition
• - want the affection of their mothers
• - leads to conflicted feelings and guilt as boys do love their fathers
as well
• - is resolved by the boy identifying with his father and incorporating
the moral values of society
• - explains why individuals seek life partners who are similar to their
mothers/fathers
• - more applied to boys than girls (girls not applied to Freud’s theory
as e feels that girls did not develop such an superego as boys)

38. Developmental Approaches
Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Theory
• Phallic stage
• - as explained above- the person results in a narcissistic
person

39. Developmental Approaches
Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Theory
• Latency
• - period of quietness from age 7- puberty
• - when the child learns skills that are not related to
sexuality
• - this includes academic and sporting skills and peer
relations

40. The latent phase

41. Developmental Approaches
Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Theory
• Genital stage ( 4th
phase)
• - ‘rebirth’ of sexual drives
• - the same as in earlier childhood
• - sexual activity moves from being auto- erotic to seeking
gratification in relationships with others (of the opposite
sex)
• - leads to mature activity in sexual relationships and
general adult behaviour
• - the person now is able to love in a sexually approved
way and also to work productively in society

42. • VIDEO- Freud Psychosexual stages
• http://lonerwolf.com/psychosexual-stage-test/

43. Humanist Approaches
• Maslow considered the father of
humanism.
• Interested in factors leading to personal
fulfilment and growth.
• Studied people who lived highly productive
lives.
• Believed that people are motivated to want
to live highly productive and happy lives.

44. Humanist Approaches
• People thus motivated to achieve needs.
• Lower needs must be satisfied before
progressing to next level…..DO YOU
AGREE???

45. Humanist Approaches
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:

46. References
• McLeod, S. A. (2008). Psychosexual Stages.
Retrieved from
http://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html
on 14 January 2015
• http://intropsych.mcmaster.ca/psych2b3/lectures/freu
. Retrieved on 14 January 2015
• Middleton, L. Nicholson, G. & O’Neill, V. Juta’s
Nursing Psychology. Applying Psychological
concepts to Nursing Practice.
• http://www.vtaide.com/blessing/ERIK1.htm.
• Marijose- PPP Template