Erikson's and Freud's theories of psychosocial and psychosexual development are discussed in the document. Erikson's stages focus on challenges individuals face as they grow, such as trust vs mistrust in infancy. Freud's stages center around psychosexual development and the shifting of libidinal energy through oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital phases. The document also examines Freud's structural model of personality consisting of the id, ego and superego.

1. PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 2

2. COURSE OBJECTIVES:
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
At the end of the discussion, the students are expected to
have known the principles and significance of the different
theories of human development and behavior. The
students will be able to realize the gift of personality that
each person can develop for the glory of God.

3. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
At the end of the term, the students are
expected to:
Have a more comprehensive analysis of the
different theories of personality, their dynamics
and development.
Gain insights in dealing with different
personalities and behavior.
Show sensitivity to human needs and problems.
Show awareness about the importance of
theories to the understanding of personality.
Show why it is important for a Christian to grow
in likeness of Christ.

4. CONTENTS
• Erikson's Psychosocial Development
• Freud's Psychosexual Development
• Freud's Structural Model of
Personality
• Kohlberg's Theory of Moral
Development
• Piaget’s Cognitive Development

5. ERIKSON’S
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

6. WHAT IS PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT?
Psychosocial development as
articulated by Erik Erikson
describes eight developmental
stages through which a healthily
developing human should pass from
infancy to late adulthood. In each
stage, the person confronts, and
hopefully masters, new challenges.
Each stage builds on the successful
completion of earlier stages. The
challenges of stages not
successfully completed may be
expected to reappear as problems in
the future.

8. Eric Erikson describes the physical,
emotional and psychological stages
of development and relates specific
issues, or developmental work or
tasks, to each stage. For example, if
an infant's physical and emotional
needs are met sufficiently, the infant
completes his/her task -- developing
the ability to trust others.
However, a person who is stymied in
an attempt at task mastery may go
on to the next state but carries with
him or her the remnants of the
unfinished task.

9. For instance, if a toddler is not
allowed to learn by doing, the
toddler develops a sense of doubt
in his or her abilities, which may
complicate later attempts at
independence.
Similarly, a preschooler who is
made to feel that the activities he
or she initiates are bad may
develop a sense of guilt that
inhibits the person later in life.

10. How do childhood emotions resurface during later years?

11. STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT

12. PSYCHOLOGICAL STAGE 1 - INFANCY (BIRTH -18 MONTHS)
• Psychosocial Crisis:
Trust vs. Mistrust
• Developing trust is the first task of
the ego, and it is never complete.
The child will let its mother out of
sight without anxiety and rage
because she has become an inner
certainty as well as an outer
predictability. But when a mother is
not present, the father becomes the
inner certainty along with other
relatives usually surrounding the
child daily. The balance of trust with
mistrust depends largely on the
quality of the maternal relationship.

13. • Main question asked: Is my environment
trustworthy or not?
• Central Task: Receiving care
• Positive Outcome: Trust in people and
the environment
• Ego Quality: Hope
• Definition: Enduring belief that one can
attain one’s deep and essential wishes
• Developmental Task: Social attachment;
Maturation of sensory, perceptual, and
motor functions; Primitive causality.
• Significant Relations: Maternal parent

15. Erikson proposed that the concept
of trust versus mistrust is present
throughout an individual’s entire
life. Therefore if the concept is not
addressed, taught and handled
properly during infancy (when it is
first introduced), the individual
may be negatively affected and
never fully immerse themselves in
the world.

16. PSYCHOLOGICAL STAGE 2 - TODDLER (1 1/2 - 3 YEARS)
• Psychosocial Crisis:
Autonomy vs. Shame & doubt
• If denied independence, the child
will turn against his/her urges to
manipulate and discriminate.
Shame develops with the child's
self-consciousness. Doubt has to do
with having a front and back -- a
"behind" subject to its own rules.
Leftover doubt may become
paranoia. The sense of autonomy
fostered in the child and modified as
life progresses serves the
preservation in the economic and
political life of a sense of justice.

17. What role does autonomy play in a toddler’s life?

18. • Main question asked: Do I need help
from others or not?
• When a child reaches the age of one to
the age of three, Erikson explains, the
child is developing a sense of autonomy
• During this age, the toddler discovers
he/she is no longer attached to the
primary caregiver but is a separate
individual (Gonzalez-Mena & Eyer,
2004).
• Autonomy is the independence a
toddler strives for from caregivers.
Toddlers’ autonomous behavior is a way
of forming their own identity away from
their caregivers (Bigner, 2006).
• This stage is a time where a toddler has
the “will” to become independent.
Shame and doubt is likely to occur
when the toddler is not given any
choices or boundaries because the
toddler is determined to become
independent.

19. Parents who are
assertive and too
demanding may
find themselves in
a power struggle
with their toddlers
(Gonzalez-Mena &
Eyer, 2006).

20. PSYCHOLOGICAL STAGE 3 - PLAY AGE (3-6 YEARS)
• Psychosocial Crisis:
Initiative vs. Guilt
• Initiative adds to autonomy
the quality of undertaking,
planning, and attacking a task
for the sake of being active and
on the move. The child is
learning to master the world
around him or her, learning
basic skills and principles of
physics; things fall to the
ground, not up; round things
roll, how to zip and tie, count
and speak with ease.

21. At this stage the child wants to
begin and complete his or her
own actions for a purpose.
Guilt is a new emotion and is
confusing to the child; he or
she may feel guilty over
things which are not logically
guilt producing, and he or she
will feel guilt when his or her
initiative does not produce the
desired results.

22. What makes play learning the best way to engage children at this
stage?

23. • Main question asked:
How moral am I?
• The development of
courage and independence
are what set preschoolers,
ages three to six years of
age, apart from other age
groups when Erik Erikson
discussed his third
psychosocial stage. Young
children in this category,
ranging between three to
six years of age, face the
challenge of initiative
versus guilt (Boer, 1997)

24. Importance of adults
The relationship between parent
and child must include a positive
balance between helping the child
develop guilt, of which will
encourage self-control, and
establishing independence for the
goals the child chooses.
Independence is significant to goal
development and child
development in that the child will
learn to form a foundation for
decision-making and in taking the
steps required to set goals.

25. What are ways of teaching the child self-control?

26. Importance of responsibility
In order to promote a safe balance
between initiative and guilt,
parents must provide the child with
achievable responsibility. Cramer,
Flynn, and LaFave (1997) describe
two different outcomes, both
positive and negative, that may
occur if a child is not given
responsibilities, such as cleaning a
room or walking a dog; all of which
can create independence and
dependability.
For a healthy balance of initiative
and guilt, the child should be able
to accept feelings of guilt while
understanding that certain
activities and situations he or she
chooses may or may not be
permitted by others.

27. WHY ARE INDEPENDENCE AND DEPENDABILITY
IMPORTANT AT THIS STAGE?

28. PSYCHOLOGICAL STAGE 3 - SCHOOL AGE (7-12 YEARS)
Psychosocial Crisis: Industry
vs. Inferiority
To bring a productive
situation to completion is an
aim that gradually
supersedes the whims and
wishes of play. The
fundamentals of technology
are developed. To lose the
hope of such "industrious"
association may pull the child
back to the more isolated,
less conscious familial rivalry
of the oedipal time.

29. • Main question asked: Am I good at what I do?
- According to Allen and Marotz (2003), "children at this
age are becoming more aware of themselves as
individuals." They work hard at "being responsible,
being good and doing it right." They are now more
reasonable to share and cooperate.
- According to Robert Brooks (2001) parents can nurture
self-esteem and resilience in different ways:
• a. Understand and accept children's learning problems
(highlight strengths)
• b. Teach children how to solve problems and make
decisions
• c. Reinforce responsibility by having children contribute
• d. Learn from, rather than feeling defeated by mistakes
• e. Make the child feel special (create special times
alone with them each week

30. PSYCHOLOGICAL STAGE 4 - ADOLESCENCE (12-18 YEARS)
Psychosocial Crisis: Identity
vs. Role Confusion
The adolescent is newly
concerned with how he or she
appears to others. Superego
identity is the accrued
confidence that the outer
sameness and continuity
prepared in the future are
matched by the sameness and
continuity of one's meaning for
oneself, as evidenced in the
promise of a career. The
ability to settle on a school or
occupational identity is
pleasant.

31. PSYCHOLOGICAL STAGE 4 - YOUNG ADULTHOOD (19-40 YEARS)
Psychosocial Crisis: Intimacy
vs. Isolation
Body and ego must be masters
of organ modes and of the other
nuclear conflicts in order to face
the fear of ego loss in situations
which call for self-abandon. The
avoidance of these experiences
leads to openness and self-
absorption.
According to Erik Erikson the
young adult stage, Intimacy vs.
Isolation, is emphasized around
the ages of 19 to 34. At the
start of the Intimacy vs.
Isolation stage, identity vs. role
confusion is coming to an end
and it still lingers at the
foundation of the stage
(Erikson 1950). Young adults
are still eager to blend their
identities with friends.

32. PSYCHOLOGICAL STAGE 5 - MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (40-65 YEARS)
• Psychosocial Crisis:
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Generativity is the concern
of establishing and guiding
the next generation.
Socially-valued work and
disciplines are expressions
of generativity. Simply
having or wanting children
does not in and of itself
achieve generativity.

33. PSYCHOLOGICAL STAGE 5 - LATE ADULTHOOD (FROM 65 YEARS)
• Psychosocial crisis: Integrity vs Despair
One strength of Erikson's theory is that it
acknowledges that development continues
throughout the life cycle. According to
Erikson, even older people are not finished
developing. Older people who are coming to
terms with their own mortality have a deep
need to look over their whole lives. A
person who can look back on good times
with gladness, on hard times with self-
respect, and on mistakes and regrets with
forgiveness, will find a new sense of
integrity and a readiness for whatever life
or death may bring. A person caught up in
old sadness, unable to forgive themselves
or others for perceived wrongs, and
dissatisfied with the life they've led, will
easily drift into depression and despair.

34. • The fundamental question is,
"What kind of life have I lived?“
A positive outcome of this
crisis is achieved if the
individual gains a sense
of fulfillment about life
and a sense of unity
within himself and with
others. That way, he can
accept death with a sense
of integrity. Just as a
healthy child will not fear
life, the healthy adult will
not fear death.
A negative outcome of this
crisis causes the
individual to despair and
fear death.

35. FREUD'S
PSYCHOSEXUAL
DEVELOPMENT

36. WHAT IS PSYCHOSEXUAL
DEVELOPMENT?
The concept of psychosexual
development, as envisioned by
Sigmund Freud at the end of the
nineteenth and the beginning of the
twentieth century, is a central
element in the theory of psychology.
It consists of five separate phases:
oral, anal, phallic, latency, and
genital. In the development of his
theories, Freud's main concern was
with sexual desire, defined in terms
of formative drives, instincts and
appetites that result in the
formation of an adult personality.

37. FREUD'S
MODEL OF
PSYCHOSEXUA
L
DEVELOPMENT

38. Stages Age Range Erogenous
zone(s)
Consequences of Fixation
Oral 0-18
months
Mouth Orally aggressive: Involves
chewing gum or ends of pens.
Orally Passive:
Involves smoking/eating/
kissing/fellatio/
cunnilingus
Anal 18-36
months
Bowel and
bladder
elimination
Anal-retentive: Obsession with
organization or excessive
neatness
Anal-expulsive:
Reckless, careless, defiant,
disorganized, Coprophiliac
Phallic 3-6 years Genitals Oedipus complex
Electra complex

39. Stages Age Range Erogenous
zone(s)
Consequences of Fixation
Latency 6 years-puberty Dormant
sexual feelings
(People do not tend to
fixate at this stage, but if
they do, they tend to be
extremely sexually
unfulfilled.)
Genital Puberty and
beyond
Sexual
interests
mature
Frigidity, impotence,
unsatisfactory
relationships

40. Oral phase
The oral stage in psychology is the term used by Sigmund
Freud to describe the child's development during the
first eighteen months of life, in which an infant's
pleasure centers are in the mouth.
Anal phase
The next stage of psychosexual development is centered
around the rectum, but can also include bladder
functions. This phase usually occurs from eighteen
months to thirty-six months of age. In this stage
children learn to control the expulsion of feces causing
their libidinal energy to become focused in this area. The
added awareness of this erogenous zone arises in
children from concentrating on controlling their
defecation.

41. Phallic phase
At thirty-six months to about seventy-two months of age the
libidinal energy shifts from the anal region to the genital
region. At this point, according to Freud's model, the Oedipus or
Electra complex can develop. The Oedipus complex is central to
the psychodynamic fixations in this time period for men; the
Electra complex for women.
Around this time in males, according to Freud, the young boy
falls in love with his mother and wishes that his father was not
in the way of his love. At this point he notices that women have
no penis and fears that the punishment of his father for being
in love with his wife is castration. This fear is enhanced if he is
castigated for masturbation at this stage. Once the fear of
retaliation has subsided the boy will learn to earn his mother's
love by becoming as much like his father as possible. Thus, the
superego is born. He will adopt his father's beliefs and ideals as
his own and move on to the latency stage.

42. Latencyphase
The latency period begins sometime around the age of six
and ends when puberty starts to begin. Freud believed
that in this phase the Oedipus complex was dissolved and
set free, resulting in a relatively conflict-free period of
development. In this phase, the child begins to make
connections to siblings, other children, and adults. This
phase is typified by a solidifying of the habits that the
child developed in the earlier stages.
Genital phase
The genital stage starts at puberty, allowing the child to
develop opposite sex relationships with the libidinal
energy again focused on the genital area. According to
Freud, if any of the stages are fixated on, there is not
enough libidinal energy for this stage to develop
untroubled. To have a fully functional adulthood, and to
accomplish "appropriate" heterosexual maturity, the
previous stages need to be fully resolved.

43. FREUD'S STRUCTURAL
MODEL OF
PERSONALITY
(ID, EGO, SUPEREGO )

44. ID (PLEASURE PRINCIPLE)
According to Freud, we are born with
our Id. The id is an important part of
our personality because as newborns,
it allows us to get our basic needs
met. Freud believed that the id is
based on our pleasure principle. In
other words, the id wants whatever
feels good at the time, with no
consideration for the reality of the
situation. When a child is hungry,
the id wants food, and therefore the
child cries. When the child needs to
be changed, the id cries. When the
child is uncomfortable, in pain, too
hot, too cold, or just wants attention,
the id speaks up until his or her
needs are met.

45. EGO (REALITY PRINCIPLE)
Within the next three years, as
the child interacts more and
more with the world, the second
part of the personality begins to
develop. Freud called this part
the Ego. The ego is based on
the reality principle. The ego
understands that other people
have needs and desires and
that sometimes being impulsive
or selfish can hurt us in the
long run. Its the ego's job to
meet the needs of the id, while
taking into consideration the
reality of the situation.

46. SUPEREGO (MORAL PRINCIPLE)
By the age of five, or the
end of the phallic stage of
development, the Superego
develops. The Superego is
the moral part of us and
develops due to the moral
and ethical restraints
placed on us by our
caregivers. Many equate
the superego with the
conscience as it dictates our
belief of right and wrong.

47. KOHLBERG'S
THEORY OF
MORAL
DEVELOPMENT

48. Stages of moral development

50. WHAT IS KOHLBERG'S STAGES OF
MORAL DEVELOPMENT?
Kohlberg's stages of moral
development are planes of moral
adequacy conceived by Lawrence
Kohlberg to explain the
development of moral reasoning.
Created while studying
psychology at the University of
Chicago, the theory was inspired
by the work of Jean Piaget and a
fascination with children's
reactions to moral dilemmas. He
wrote his doctoral dissertation at
the university in 1958, outlining
what are now known as his
stages of moral development.

51. PRE-CONVENTIONAL
Stage one (obedience and punishment
driven) individuals focus on the
direct consequences that their
actions will have for themselves.
For example, an action is perceived
as morally wrong if the person who
commits it gets punished. The
worse the punishment for the act is,
the more 'bad' the act is perceived
to be. In addition, there is no
recognition that others' points of
view are any different from one's
own view. This stage may be viewed
as a kind of authoritarianism.

52. Stage two (self-interest driven)
espouses the what's in it for me
position, right behavior being
defined by what is in one's own
best interest. In stage two concern
for others is not based on loyalty or
intrinsic respect. Lacking a
perspective of society in the pre-
conventional level, this should not
be confused with social contract
(stage five), as all actions are
performed to serve one's own
needs or interests. For the stage
two theorist, the perspective of the
world is often seen as morally
relative.

53. CONVENTIONAL
Stage three (interpersonal
accord and conformity driven),
the self enters society by filling
social roles. Individuals are
receptive of approval or
disapproval from other people as
it reflects society's accordance
with the perceived role. They try
to be a good boy or good girl to
live up to these expectations,
having learned that there is
inherent value in doing so. Stage
three reasoning may judge the
morality of an action by
evaluating its consequences in
terms of a person's relationships,
which now begin to include
things like respect, gratitude
and the 'golden rule’.

54. Stage four (authority and social order
obedience driven), it is important to obey
laws, dictums and social conventions
because of their importance in maintaining
a functioning society. A central ideal or
ideals often prescribe what is right and
wrong, such as in the case of
fundamentalism.
Stage four (authority and social order
obedience driven), it is important to obey
laws, dictums and social conventions
because of their importance in maintaining
a functioning society. A central ideal or
ideals often prescribe what is right and
wrong, such as in the case of
fundamentalism.

55. POST-CONVENTIONAL
Stage five (social contract
driven), individuals are
viewed as holding different
opinions and values. Along a
similar vein, laws are
regarded as social contracts
rather than rigid dictums.
Those that do not promote the
general welfare should be
changed when necessary to
meet the greatest good for the
greatest number of people.

56. Stage six (universal ethical
principles driven), moral reasoning is
based on abstract reasoning using
universal ethical principles. Laws are
valid only insofar as they are
grounded in justice, and that a
commitment to justice carries with it
an obligation to disobey unjust laws.
Rights are unnecessary as social
contracts are not essential for deontic
moral action. Decisions are not met
hypothetically in a conditional way
but rather categorically in an absolute
way (see Immanuel Kant's 'categorical
imperative').

57. PIAGET’S
COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT

58. WHAT IS THEORY OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT?
The Theory of Cognitive Development, one
of the most historically influential theories
was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss
psychologist (1896–1980). His theory
provided many central concepts in the field
of developmental psychology and concerned
the growth of intelligence, which for Piaget,
meant the ability to more accurately
represent the world and perform logical
operations on representations of concepts
grounded in the world. The theory concerns
the emergence and acquisition of
schemata—schemes of how one perceives
the world—in "developmental stages", times
when children are acquiring new ways of
mentally representing information.

59. Piaget divided schemes that
children use to understand the
world through four main periods,
roughly correlated with and
becoming increasingly
sophisticated with age:
• Sensorimotor period (years 0–2)
• Preoperational period (years 2–7)
• Concrete operational period (years
7–11)
• Formal operational period (years
11 and up)

60. SENSORIMOTOR PERIOD (YEARS 0–2)
Sensorimotor period is the first of the
four periods. According to Piaget, this
stage marks the development of
essential spatial abilities and
understanding of the world in six sub-
stages:
• The first sub-stage, known as the
reflex schema stage, occurs from birth
to six weeks and is associated
primarily with the development of
reflexes.
• The second sub-stage, primary
circular reaction phase, occurs from
six weeks to four months and is
associated primarily with the
development of habits.
• The third sub-stage, the secondary
circular reactions phase, occurs from
four to nine months and is associated
primarily with the development of
coordination between vision and
prehension.

61. • The fourth sub-stage; called the co-
ordination of secondary circular
reactions stage, which occurs from nine
to twelve months, is when Piaget
(1954) thought that object permanence
developed.
• The fifth sub-stage; the tertiary
circular reactions phase, occurs from
twelve to eighteen months and is
associated primarily with the discovery
of new means to meet goals.
• The sixth sub-stage, considered
"beginnings of symbolic
representation", is associated primarily
with the beginnings of insight, or true
creativity.

62. PREOPERATIONAL PERIOD (YEARS 2–7)
• The Preoperational stage is the second
of four stages of cognitive development.
By observing sequences of play, Piaget
was able to demonstrate that towards
the end of the second year a
qualitatively new kind of psychological
functioning occurs.
• (Pre)Operatory Thought in Piagetian
theory is any procedure for mentally
acting on objects. The hallmark of the
preoperational stage is sparse and
logically inadequate mental operations.
During this stage the child learns to
use and to represent objects by images
and words, in other words they learn to
use symbolic thinking. Thinking is still
egocentric: The child has difficulty
taking the viewpoint of others.

63. The Preoperational Stage can be further broken
down into the Preconceptual Stage and the
Intuitive Stage
• The Preconceptual stage (2-4 years) is marked by
egocentric thinking and animistic thought. A
child who displays animistic thought tends to
assign living attributes to inanimate objects, for
example that a glass would feel pain if it were
broken.
• The Intuitive(4-6 years) stage is when children
start employing mental activities to solve
problems and obtain goals but they are unaware
of how they came to their conclusions. For
example a child is shown 7 dogs and 3 cats and
asked if there are more dogs than cats. The child
would respond positively. However when asked if
there are more dogs than animals the child
would once again respond positively. Such
fundamental errors in logic show the transition
between intuitiveness in solving problems and
true logical reasoning acquired in later years
when the child grows up

64. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL PERIOD (YEARS 7–11)
• The Concrete operational stage is the
third of four stages of cognitive
development in Piaget's theory. This
stage, which follows the Preoperational
stage, occurs between the ages of 6 and
11 years and is characterized by the
appropriate use of logic. Important
processes during this stage are:
• Seriation—the ability to sort objects in
an order according to size, shape, or any
other characteristic. For example, if
given different-shaded objects they may
make a color gradient.
• Classification—the ability to name and
identify sets of objects according to
appearance, size or other characteristic,
including the idea that one set of objects
can include another. A child is no longer
subject to the illogical limitations of
animism (the belief that all objects are
alive and therefore have feelings).

65. • Decentering—where the child takes into
account multiple aspects of a problem to
solve it. For example, the child will no longer
perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup
to contain less than a normally-wide, taller
cup.
• Reversibility—where the child understands
that numbers or objects can be changed, then
returned to their original state. For this
reason, a child will be able to rapidly
determine that if 4+4 equals 8, 8−4 will equal
4, the original quantity.
• Conservation—understanding that quantity,
length or number of items is unrelated to the
arrangement or appearance of the object or
items. For instance, when a child is
presented with two equally-sized, full cups
they will be able to discern that if water is
transferred to a pitcher it will conserve the
quantity and be equal to the other filled cup.

66. FORMAL OPERATIONAL PERIOD (YEARS 11 AND UP)
The formal operational period is the fourth
and final of the periods of cognitive
development in Piaget's theory. This stage,
which follows the Concrete Operational
stage, commences at around 12 years of age
(puberty) and continues into adulthood. It is
characterized by acquisition of the ability to
think abstractly, reason logically and draw
conclusions from the information available.
During this stage the young adult is able to
understand such things as love, "shades of
gray", logical proofs, and values. Lucidly,
biological factors may be traced to this stage
as it occurs during puberty (the time at
which another period of neural pruning
occurs), marking the entry to adulthood in
Physiology, cognition, moral judgement
(Kohlberg), Psychosexual development
(Freud), and psychosocial development
(Erikson).

67. REFERENCES
Internet:
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_cognitive_developme
nt
• http://allpsych.com/psychology101/moral_development.html