Theories of growth and development.ppt

UNIT : IV
THEORIES OF
GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
Mrs. D. Melba Sahaya Sweety RN,RM
PhD Nursing , MSc Nursing (Pediatric Nursing), BSc Nursing
Associate Professor
Department of Pediatric Nursing
Enam Nursing College, Savar,
Bangladesh.
1

INTRODUCTION
•Child development theories focus on explaining how
children change and grow over the course of childhood.
Such theories centre on various aspects of development
including social, emotional, and cognitive growth.
•The study of human development is a rich and varied
subject. We all have personal experience with
development, but it is sometimes difficult to
understand how and why people grow, learn, and act as
they do An understanding of child development is
essential because it allows us to fully appreciate the
cognitive, emotional, physical, social, and educational
growth that children go through from birth and into
early adulthood. 2

IMPORTANCE OF
DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
Theories help people:
 To Organize their ideas about raising children.
 To Understand influences on parenting.
 To Discover more than one way to interact with children.
 To Analyze the benefits and consequences of using more than
one theory
 To Help in the “real world” of daily child- rearing.
 To Make good common sense.
3

•DEVELOPMENT – Development refers to progressive
increase in skill and capacity.
• Developmental change may occur as a result of genetically-
controlled processes known as maturation, or as a result of
environmental factors and learning, but most commonly
involves an interaction between the two. It may also occur
as a result of human nature and of human ability to learn
from the environment.
DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENT
4

THEORIES OF GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
Psychosocial Development Theory (Eric H Erikson)
Psycho – Sexual Development Theory (Sigmund Freud)
Intellectual Development Theory (Jeans Piaget And Kholberg)
Moral Development Theory (Jeans Piaget,Kholberg and Gilligan)
Spiritual Development Theory By ( James W Fowler)
Multiple Intelligences Theory (Gardner’s )
Socio-cultural Theory (Lev Vygotsky)
Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)
Attachment Theory (John Bowbly)
5

Psychosocial Development Theory
•Erik Homburger Erikson (1902–1994) wasa German-
American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst
known for his theory on psychological development of human
beings. who took Freud’s controversial theory of psychosexual
development and modified it as a psychosocial theory.
• Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development theory
introducedin 1950. During each of Erikson’s eight stages, there
is a psychological conflict that must be successfully overcome in
order for a childto develop into a healthy, well-adjustedadult.
6

Trust
vs. Mistrust
Autonomy
vs. Shame
and Doubt
Initiative vs.
Guilt
Industry vs.
Inferiority
Identity vs.
Role
Confusion
Intimacy vs.
Isolation
Generativity
vs.
Stagnation
Ego
Integrity vs.
Despair
Stages Of Psychosocial Development Theory
7

• At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent
upon adult caregivers for everything they need to survive
including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a
caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will
come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon the adults
in their life. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a
belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.
•Virtues : Hope
•EventsFeeding, abandonment
Stage 1: Trust vs. mistrust – (Birth to 1 year)
Infancy
8

• At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little
independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and
making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make
choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a
sense of autonomy.
• If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to
assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive,
and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and
feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities.
•Virtues : Will
•Events : Toilet training, clothing themselves
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. shame (1 to 3 years)
Toddler
9

• This a period of energetic and active imagination. During this
period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting
with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it
provides children with the opportunity to explore their
interpersonal skills through initiating activities.
•Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate
activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a
sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and
make decisions.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 6years)
Preschooler
10

• Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through
criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt. Too much
guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may
inhibit their creativity
•Virtues : Purpose
•Events : Exploring, using tools or making art
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 6years)
Preschooler
11

•Children are at the stage where they will be learning
to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their
own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the
child’s life as they teach the child specific skills. At
this time, children enjoy planning and carrying out
projects. This helps them learn society’s rules and
expectations. During this stage, children gain
approval by developing intellectual skills such as
reading, writing, and math.
•Stage 4: Industry vs Inferiority (6 to 12 years)
School going
12

•If children are encouraged and reinforced for their
initiative, they begin to feel industrious (competent)
and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If
this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by
parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel
inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore
may not reach his or her potential.
•Virtues : Confidence, Competence
•Events : School, Sports
•Stage 4: Industry vs Inferiority (6 to 12 years)
School going
13

• During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal
identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs,
and goals. Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement
through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a
strong sense of self and feelings of independence and control. Those
who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and
confused about themselves and the future.
•Virtues : Fidility
•Events : Social Relationship
•Stage 5: Identity vs Role Confusion
(12 to 18 years) Adolescence
14

• Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other
people. During this stage, they begin to share themselves more
intimately with others. They explore relationships leading toward
longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member.
Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships
and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship.
Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can
lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression.
•Virtues : Love
•Events :Romantic Relationships
Stage 6: Intimacy vs Isolation (19 to 40 years)
Young Adulthood
15

• During adulthood, the adults continue to build their lives, focusing on
their career and family. They give back to society through raising their
children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in
community activities and organizations. Through generativity they
develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture. Those who are
successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the
world by being active in their home and community.
• Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved
in the world.
•Virtues : Care
•Events :Work and Parenthood
Stage 7: Generativity vs Stagnation (40 to 65
years) Middle Adulthood
16

•This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. Older adults
need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfilment. People who feel
proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look
back on their lives with few regrets. if they see their lives as unproductive,
feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals,
we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to
depression and hopelessness.
•Virtues : Wisdom
•Events :Reflexion on life
Stage 8: Integrity vs Despair ( 65 years) Middle
Adulthood
17

Psycho – Sexual Development
Theory
• The theory of psychosexual development, also known as theory of
libidinal development, is one of the earliest theories explaining how
personality develops in human beings. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
was an Austrian neurologist believed that personality develops during
early childhood. He believed that each of us must pass through a
serious of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper
nurturance and parenting during a stage, we may become stuck, or
fixated, in that stage.
18

The Oral Stage
The Anal Stage
The Phallic Stage
The Latent Period
The Genital Stage
Stages Of Psycho Sexual
Development Theory
19

•During this stage, the mouthis the pleasure centre for development. Freudbelieved this is
why infants are born witha sucking reflex and desire their mother's breast. The mouthis
vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure fromoral stimulation throughgratifying
activities suchas tasting and sucking.
•Because the infant is entirelydependent upon caretakers (who are responsiblefor feeding
the child), the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort throughthis oral stimulation.
• If a child's oral needs are not met during infancy, he or she may develop negative
habits suchas nail biting or thumb suckingto meet this basic need. Smoking, and
problemwith eatingand drinking on later stage.
•Erogenous Zone: Mouth
Psycho – Sexual Development Theory
Stage 1: The oral stage (0 to 1 years) Infants
20

• During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on
controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet
training—the child has to learn to control their bodily needs. Developing this
control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.
• According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which
parents approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using
the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children
feel capable and productive.
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder control
Freudbelievedthat positive experiences during the toilet trainingstage serve as the
basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.
Theory
Stage 2: The Anal stage (1 to 3 years) Toddlers
21

• However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children
needduring this stage. Some parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for
accidents.
• According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative
outcomes. If parents take an approachthat is too lenient, Freud suggestedthat
an anal-expulsivepersonality coulddevelop in whichthe individual has a messy,
wasteful, or destructive personality.
• If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freudbelievedthat
an anal-retentivepersonality develops in which the individual is stringent,
orderly, rigid, and obsessive.
Theory
Stage 2: The Anal stage (1 to 3 years) Toddlers
22

• During this stage, preschoolers take pleasure in their genitals and, according
to Freud, begin to struggle with sexual desires toward the opposite sex parent
(boys to mothers and girls to fathers).
• For boys, this is called the Oedipus complex, involving a boy's desire for his
mother and his urge to replace his father who is seen as a rival for the
mother’s attention.
• The Electra complex, involves a girl's desire for her father's attention
and wish to take her mother’s place.
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
Theory
Stage 3:The Phallic stage(3 to 6 years) Pre-schoolers
23

• During this time, the libido is relatively repressed or
sublimated. Freud did not identify any erogenous zone for
this stage. The child now begins to act on their impulses
indirectly by focusing on activities such as school, sports,
and building relationships. Dysfunction at this stage
results in the child's inability to form healthy relationships
as an adult.
• Erogenous Zone: Sexual feelings are inactive
Theory
Stage 4:The Latency stage(6 to 12 years) School going
24

• The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final stage of
psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This
stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.
• Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others
grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life
areas.
• If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individua should now be well-balanced,
warm, and caring.
• Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and superego
were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by the id, which
demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants.
• Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic urges against
the need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.
• Erogenous Zone: Maturing sexual Interest
Theory
Stage 5:The Genital stage(12 + years of age or Puberty to Death)
25

Intellectual Development
Theory
• Jean Piaget(1896 – 1990) was a Swiss psychologist known
for his work on child development. Jean Piaget's theory
of cognitive development suggests that children move
through four different stages of mental development. His
theory focuses not only on understanding how children
acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature
of intelligence.
26

Concepts Intellectual
Development Theory
•Schemas are thought processes that are essentially building blocks of knowledge. A baby,
for example, knows that it must make a sucking motion to eat. That's a schema.
•Assimilation is how to use the existing schemas to interpret a new situation or object.
For example, a child seeing a skunk for the first time might call it a cat.
•Accommodation is what happens when you change a schema, or create a new one, to fit
new information you learn. The child accommodates when they understand that not all
furry, four-legged creatures are cats.
•Equilibrium happens when the children able to use assimilation to fit in most
of the new information they learn. So the children not constantly adding new schemas.
27

Stages Intellectual
Development Theory
Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years
Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
Formal operational stage: ages
12 and up 28

• Sensory organs & muscles become more functional. During the early stages, according to
Piaget, infants are only aware of what is right in front of them. They focus on what they
see, what they are doing, and physical interactions with their immediate
environment.(OBJECT PERFORMANCE)
• Because they don't yet know how things react, they're constantly experimenting. They
shake or throw things, put things in their mouth, and learn about the world
through trial and error. The later stages include goal-oriented behaviour that leads to a
desired result.
Intellectual Development Theory
29

• STAGES OF SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
• Stage 1: Use of reflexes (Birth to 1month)
Coordination of sensation and action through reflexive
behaviours. Movements are primarily reflexive sucking of
objects in the mouth, following moving or interesting
objects with the eyes, and closing of the hand when an
object makes contact with the palm
30

• STAGES OF SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
• Stage 2: Primary circular reaction (1-4 months)
"Coordination of sensation and two types of schema: habits
(reflex) and primary circular reactions (reproduction of an event
that initially occurred by chance). The main focus is still on the
infant's body". As an example of this type of reaction, an infant
might repeat the motion of passing their hand before their face.
31

•STAGES OF SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
•Stage 3: Secondary circular reaction (4-8 months) Development of habits.
Becomes aware of external environment. Initiates acts to change the movement. Three
new abilities occur at this stage: intentional grasping for a desired object, the repetition
of an action involving an external object begin; for example, moving a switch to turn on
a light repeatedly, accidentally shaking a rattle and continuing to do so for
the sake of satisfaction The differentiation between means and ends also occurs.
32

•Stage 4: Coordination of secondary schemata (8-12 months)
Coordination of vision and touch—hand-eye coordination;
Differentiates goals and goal- directed activities. (ex: using a stick to
reach something)
•Stage 5: Tertiary circular reaction(12-18 months) Experiments with
methods to reach goals. Develops rituals that become significant.
•Stage 6: Invention of new means (18-24 months) Uses mental
imagery to understand the environment. Uses fantasy.
33

• At this stage Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use
words and pictures to represent objects.
• Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see
things from the perspective of others.
•While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still
tend to think about things in very concrete terms.
STAGES OF PREOPERATIONAL STAGE
• Pre-conceptual stage (2-4 year)
•Imitation. This is where a child can mimic someone’s behaviour even when the
person they are imitating is no longer in front of them.
Theory
Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
34

•Symbolicplay. A childstarts to use objectsas symbols, projecting the properties of one
object onto another; for example, pretending a stick is a sword.
•Drawing. Drawinginvolves bothimitation and symbolic play. It begins as scribbles and
develops into more accurateabstract representations of objects and people.
•STAGES OF PREOPERATIONAL STAGE
• Intuitive stage(4-7 years)
•Mental imagery. The child can picture many objects in their minds. They may ask
the names of objects often to secure these associations in their mind.
Preoperational stage: 2 to 7 years
35

•Verbal evocation of events. The child can uselanguage to describe and represent events,
people, or objects fromtheir past.
•During the preoperational stage, the child is egocentric. This means they only understand
the worldfromtheir perspective and struggle to see other peoples’ points of view.
Preoperational stage: 2 to 7 years
36
Concrete operational stage: ages 7to 11
•During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete
events They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the
amount of liquidin a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass,
for example

•Theirthinking becomes more logical andorganized, but still very concrete
Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning fromspecific information to a
general principle
•children also become less egocentric andbegin to think about how other people
might think and feel.
Theory
Concrete operational stage: ages 7to 11
37

•During this stage, Children begin to represent objects and ideas in a more
logical way. While the thought process is not on the same level as an adult,
they begin to be more flexible in their thoughts and ideas. This allows them to
solve problems in a more systematic way, leading to more success in
educational activities in school.
• For example, a child may implement the rule “if nothing is added or taken
away, then the amount of something stays the same.” Applying systemic rules
or ideas may help a child solve simple tasks in the classroom, such as addition
and subtractionproblems or scientific calculations.
Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up
38

Moral Development Theory
•Moral development theory was developed by Lawrence
Kohlberg (1927 – 1987) in 1958. He was an American
psychologist
•Kohlberg's theory is broken down into three primary
levels. At each level of moral development, there are
two stages. Similar to how Piaget believed that not all
people reach the highest levels of cognitive
development, Kohlberg believed not everyone
progresses to the highest stages of moral development.
39

Stages Of Moral Development Theory
Level 1 Pre
conventional
Morality
Stage 1
Punishment &
obedience
orientation
Stage2
Instrumental-
relativist
orientation
Level 2
Conventional
Morality
Stage 3
Developing
Good
Interpersona
l
Relationships
Stage4
Maintaining
Social
Order
Level 3
Post conventional
Morality
Stage 5
(Social
Contract and
Individual
Rights)
Stage 6
(Universal
Principles)
40

• At the preconventional level children don’t have a personal
code of morality, and instead moral decisions are shaped by the
standards of adults and the consequences of following or
breaking their rules.
•For example, if an action leads to punishment is must be bad,
and if it leads to a reward is must be good.
•Authority is outside the individual and children often make
moral decisions based on the physical consequences of actions.
Level 1 Pre conventional Morality(Birth to 9 years)
41

• Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The
child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person
is punished, they must have done wrong.
• Stage 2. Instrumental-relativist orientation
At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one right view
that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have
different viewpoints. “Right” is defined as that which is acceptable to
& approved by the self. When actions satisfy one’s needs, they are
“right.”
Level 1 Pre conventional Morality(Birth to 9 years)
42

• It is marked by the acceptance of social rules regarding what
is good and moral. During this time, adolescents and adults
internalize the moral standards they have learned from their
role models and from society.
Level 2 conventional Morality(10 to 13 years)
43
Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships): Often referred to as
the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of the interpersonal
relationship of moral development is focused on living up to social
expectations and roles.
There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration
of how choices influence relationships.

•Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order) : This stage is focused on ensuring that
social order is maintained. At this stage of moral development, people begin to
consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining
law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.
Level 2 conventional Morality(10 to 13 years)
44
Level 3 Post conventional Morality(13 + years)
Postconventional morality is the third stage of
moral development, and is characterized by an
individuals’ understanding of universal ethical
principles.

•These are abstract and ill-defined, but might include:
the preservation of life at all costs, and the importance
of human dignity.
Level 3 Post conventional Morality(13 + years)
45
Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes
aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number,
there are times when they will work against the interest of particular
individuals.
•Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their
own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law.
The principles apply to everyone. E.g., human rights, justice, and equality.

Spiritual Development
Theory
• The Spiritual Development or Faith development
Theory was formulated By James W. Fowler
(1940-2015) (was an American theologian who
was Professor of Theology and Human
Development at Emory University) and published
In the Year of 1981 According to Fowler, there are
seven primary stages of faith (including Stage 0) in
the life of the individual.
46

Stages of Spiritual Development
Theory
Stage 0 –
Primal
Undifferentia
ted Faith
Stage 1 –
“Intuitive-
Projective”
Faith
Stage 2 –
Mythic-
Literal
Faith
Stage 3 –
“Synthetic
-
Conventio
nal” Faith
Stage 4 –
”Individuative
-Reflective
Faith”
Stage 5 –
“Conjuncti
ve” Faith
(Mid-Life
Crisis).
Stage 6 –
”Universalizi
ng” Faith
47

• It is characterized by an early learning of the safety of their environment (i.e.
warm, safe and secure vs. hurt, neglect and abuse). If consistent nurture is
experienced, one will develop a sense of trust and safety about the universe and the
divine. Conversely, negative experiences will cause one to develop distrust about
the universe and the divine.
Spiritual Development Theory
Stage 0 – Primal Undifferentiated Faith (Birth – 2 Years)
48
Stage 1 – “Intuitive-Projective” Faith (3 – 7Years)
Faith at this stage is experiential and develops through encounters with
stories, images, the influence of others, a deeper intuitive sense of what is
right and wrong, and innocent perceptions of how God causes the universe to
function. Imitates parental behaviours and attitudes about religion and
spirituality. Has no real understanding of spiritual concepts.

• Children at this stage have a belief in justice and fairness in religious matters, a
sense of reciprocity in the workings of the universe (e.g. doing good will result in
a good result, doing bad will cause a bad thing to happen) and an
anthropomorphic image of God (e.g. a man with a long white beard who lives in
the clouds).
Stage 2 – Mythic-Literal Faith (7 – 12 Years)
49
Stage 3 – “Synthetic-Conventional” Faith (13- 18 yr Adolescents)
• This stage is characterized by the identification of the adolescent with
a religious institution, belief system, or authority, and the growth of a
personal religious or spiritual identity. Or Questions values &
religious beliefs in an attempt to form own identity.

• This stage is characterized by the individual takes personal responsibility for
his or her beliefs and feelings. As one is able to reflect on one's own beliefs,
there is an openness to a new complexity of faith, but this also increases the
awareness of conflicts in one's belief.
Stage 4 – ”Individuative-Reflective Faith” (Ages 18-22 yrs Late
adolescents and young Adults).
50
Stage 5 – “Conjunctive” Faith (Adults)
People do not usually get to this stage until their early In this
stage, the strong need for individual self-reflection gives way to a
sense of the importance of community in faith development.

• People at this stage are also much more open to other people's faith perspectives.
This is not because they are moving away from their faith but because they have a
realization that other people's faiths might inform and deepen their own.
Stage 5 – “Conjunctive” Faith (Adults)
51
• This stage is only rarely achieved by individuals. Makes concepts of love & justice
tangible. James Fowler describes people at this stage as having "a special grace that
makes them seem more lucid, more simple, and yet somehow more fully human
than the rest of us." People at this stage cherish life but also do not hold on
to life too tightly. They put their faith in action, challenging the status quo
and working to create justice in the world.
•People like Gandhi and Mother Teresa as examples of people who have
reached this stage.
Stage 6 – ”Universalizing” Faith (or ”Enlightenment”) (Later Adulthood).

• Studying and understanding child growth and development
are important parts of teaching young children. No two
children are alike. Children differ in physical, cognitive,
social, and emotional growth patterns. Understanding child
development will help make you a successful caregiver or early
childhood teacher. Theories of development can help
caregivers understand how to best work with children.
CONCLUSION
52

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