It is an acute diarrheal disease caused by Vibrio Cholera typically characterized by sudden onset of profuse,effortless,watery diarrhea followed by vomiting, rapid dehydration, muscular cramps and suppression of urine.
Dengue (pronounced DENG-gay) can affect anyone but tends to be more severe in people with compromised immune systems. Because it is caused by one of four serotypes of virus, it is possible to get dengue fever multiple times. However, an attack of dengue produces immunity for a lifetime to that particular serotype to which the patient was exposed.
Dengue (pronounced DENG-gay) can affect anyone but tends to be more severe in people with compromised immune systems. Because it is caused by one of four serotypes of virus, it is possible to get dengue fever multiple times. However, an attack of dengue produces immunity for a lifetime to that particular serotype to which the patient was exposed.
Cholera, typhoid fever and dysentery are some communicable diseases that are mainly caused due to ingestion of food which are contaminated with pathogenic micro-organisms.
this presentation was prepared and presented 4 years back for federal police crime prevention health main department staffs, to warm up them about AWD out break and its possible mangemnt
The word cohort is derived from the Latin "cohorts," meaning an enclosure, company, or crowd.
Taken in English from 17c. as a living prefix meaning "together, mutually, in common,“
In Roman times, a cohort was a 300—600 infantry body.
Group of people who share a common characteristic or experience within a defined time period.
Age [Birth cohort]
Occupation exposure cohort
Exposure to drugs or vaccine
Pregnancy cohort
Insured person cohort
Marriage cohort
The term “Demography” is the statistical and mathematical study of the human population's size, composition, and spatial distribution and of changes over time in these aspects through the operation of five fertility processes: mortality, marriage, migration, and social mobility.
Usually, the demographic data are drawn from various sources such as:
National censuses,
Civil registration systems,
and sample surveys.
A cross-sectional study is a descriptive study in which disease and exposure status are measured simultaneously in a given population.
It measures
the prevalence of health outcomes(also called prevalence study)
or determinants of health,
or both,
In a population at a point in time or over a short period.
When the investigator draws a sample out of the study population of interest and examines all the subjects to detect
those having the disease/outcome
and those not having this disease/outcome of interest.
At the same time, finds out whether or not they have the presence of
the suspected cause (exposure)
(or give a History of such exposure in the past),
is called the Cross-sectional analytic study.
Sampling is selecting observations (a sample) to provide an adequate description and inferences of the population.
Sample:
A is “a smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of units from a population used to determine truths about that population” (Field, 2005)
The sampling frame
A list of all elements or other units containing the elements in a population.
Agriculture is one of the occupations most exposed to various hazards. It is also associated with the highest rate of adverse health outcomes each year worldwide . Agricultural workers have been shown to be exposed to a variety of chemical hazards, such as pesticides and other chemical substances . Farm work may also expose workers to strenuous physical exercise and an extreme environment (i.e., low temperatures). Furthermore, during their daily activities, agricultural workers operate various types of vehicles, machinery, and equipment , which can result in excessive exposures to noise and vibration . It has been suggested that these occupational exposures increase the risk of musculoskeletal disorders due to the harmful effects of biomechanical and physical factors.
Workers may be exposed to various types of occupational hazards at the same time, potentially increasing the risk of adverse health outcomes.
Epidemiology & Control Measures of Mumps.pptxAB Rajar
Mumps is best known for the puffy cheeks and tender, swollen jaw that it causes. This is a result of swollen salivary glands under the ears on one or both sides, often referred to as parotitis. Other symptoms that might begin a few days before parotitis include: Fever. Headache.
Epidemiology & Control Measures of Measles.pptxAB Rajar
It is an acute highly infectious disease of childhood caused by a specific virus of the group myxovirus.
One of the top five causes of vaccine-preventable deaths in the world
Easy to prevent – the vaccine costs less than US$1 and gives life-long immunity
Found in every part of the world – measles outbreaks have taken place on every continent and in all climates
One of the most contagious diseases – 90% of those exposed to the measles virus will catch it if they do not have immunity
SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences), also known as IBM SPSS Statistics, is a software package used for the analysis of statistical data. Although the name of SPSS reflects its original use in the field of social sciences, its use has since expanded into other data markets.
The second major type of observational epidemiology
The subject of interest is individual
The object is testing of hypothesis:
Two distinct type
Case-Control Study
Cohort Study
These studies determine the statistical association between RF & diseases and if yes the strength of the association
Also c/d “retrospective studies”
First approach to test causal hypothesis
Also c/d “retrospective studies”
First approach to test causal hypothesis
Use two group cases & control
Has three distinct features
Both exposure & outcome (disease) occurred before the start of the study
The study proceeds backward from effect to cause
It uses a control or comparison group to support or refute an inference
Introduction to Descriptive Epidemiology.pptxAB Rajar
Descriptive Epidemiology is a branch of observation epidemiology, which particularly study about disease frequency and pattern by time, place, and person.
It deals with the distribution and determinants of the factors related to health or disease in the concerned population.
It measures the magnitudes of the disease or other health-related disorder in the form of incidence and prevalence
Epidemiology includes assessment of the distribution (including describing demographic characteristics of an affected population), determinants (including a study of possible risk factors), and the application to control health problems (such as closing a restaurant).
These lectures will help the students in understanding of basic principles, concepts, and definitions of the subject.
School health services is a branch of preventive medicine which deals with medical inspection of school children and their health protection, primarily in the environment of the school.
The water cycle describes the processes that drive the movement of water throughout the hydrosphere.
Nature recycles the earth's water supply through a process known as the water cycle or hydrologic cycle.
Snake bite is an injury caused by a bite from a snake, often resulting in puncture wounds inflicted by the animal’s fangs & some times resulting in envenomation
Personal hygiene is defined as the principle of maintaining cleanliness and grooming of the external body.
Maintaining a high level of personal hygiene will help to increase self esteem and confidence.
Family; It is a group of people emotionally involved and related either by blood, marriage or adoption; responsible for the reproduction and rearing of children, & living together.
Air plays a vital role in our lives.
It is our immediate environment and performs following Functions:
Supply oxygen for living
Supply CO2 to plants
Helps in smelling
Helps in listening.
QA Paediatric dentistry department, Hospital Melaka 2020Azreen Aj
QA study - To improve the 6th monthly recall rate post-comprehensive dental treatment under general anaesthesia in paediatric dentistry department, Hospital Melaka
Leading the Way in Nephrology: Dr. David Greene's Work with Stem Cells for Ki...Dr. David Greene Arizona
As we watch Dr. Greene's continued efforts and research in Arizona, it's clear that stem cell therapy holds a promising key to unlocking new doors in the treatment of kidney disease. With each study and trial, we step closer to a world where kidney disease is no longer a life sentence but a treatable condition, thanks to pioneers like Dr. David Greene.
India Clinical Trials Market: Industry Size and Growth Trends [2030] Analyzed...Kumar Satyam
According to TechSci Research report, "India Clinical Trials Market- By Region, Competition, Forecast & Opportunities, 2030F," the India Clinical Trials Market was valued at USD 2.05 billion in 2024 and is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.64% through 2030. The market is driven by a variety of factors, making India an attractive destination for pharmaceutical companies and researchers. India's vast and diverse patient population, cost-effective operational environment, and a large pool of skilled medical professionals contribute significantly to the market's growth. Additionally, increasing government support in streamlining regulations and the growing prevalence of lifestyle diseases further propel the clinical trials market.
Growing Prevalence of Lifestyle Diseases
The rising incidence of lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer is a major trend driving the clinical trials market in India. These conditions necessitate the development and testing of new treatment methods, creating a robust demand for clinical trials. The increasing burden of these diseases highlights the need for innovative therapies and underscores the importance of India as a key player in global clinical research.
Medical Technology Tackles New Health Care Demand - Research Report - March 2...pchutichetpong
M Capital Group (“MCG”) predicts that with, against, despite, and even without the global pandemic, the medical technology (MedTech) industry shows signs of continuous healthy growth, driven by smaller, faster, and cheaper devices, growing demand for home-based applications, technological innovation, strategic acquisitions, investments, and SPAC listings. MCG predicts that this should reflects itself in annual growth of over 6%, well beyond 2028.
According to Chris Mouchabhani, Managing Partner at M Capital Group, “Despite all economic scenarios that one may consider, beyond overall economic shocks, medical technology should remain one of the most promising and robust sectors over the short to medium term and well beyond 2028.”
There is a movement towards home-based care for the elderly, next generation scanning and MRI devices, wearable technology, artificial intelligence incorporation, and online connectivity. Experts also see a focus on predictive, preventive, personalized, participatory, and precision medicine, with rising levels of integration of home care and technological innovation.
The average cost of treatment has been rising across the board, creating additional financial burdens to governments, healthcare providers and insurance companies. According to MCG, cost-per-inpatient-stay in the United States alone rose on average annually by over 13% between 2014 to 2021, leading MedTech to focus research efforts on optimized medical equipment at lower price points, whilst emphasizing portability and ease of use. Namely, 46% of the 1,008 medical technology companies in the 2021 MedTech Innovator (“MTI”) database are focusing on prevention, wellness, detection, or diagnosis, signaling a clear push for preventive care to also tackle costs.
In addition, there has also been a lasting impact on consumer and medical demand for home care, supported by the pandemic. Lockdowns, closure of care facilities, and healthcare systems subjected to capacity pressure, accelerated demand away from traditional inpatient care. Now, outpatient care solutions are driving industry production, with nearly 70% of recent diagnostics start-up companies producing products in areas such as ambulatory clinics, at-home care, and self-administered diagnostics.
How many patients does case series should have In comparison to case reports.pdfpubrica101
Pubrica’s team of researchers and writers create scientific and medical research articles, which may be important resources for authors and practitioners. Pubrica medical writers assist you in creating and revising the introduction by alerting the reader to gaps in the chosen study subject. Our professionals understand the order in which the hypothesis topic is followed by the broad subject, the issue, and the backdrop.
https://pubrica.com/academy/case-study-or-series/how-many-patients-does-case-series-should-have-in-comparison-to-case-reports/
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V - ROLE OF PEADIATRIC NURSE.pdfSachin Sharma
Pediatric nurses play a vital role in the health and well-being of children. Their responsibilities are wide-ranging, and their objectives can be categorized into several key areas:
1. Direct Patient Care:
Objective: Provide comprehensive and compassionate care to infants, children, and adolescents in various healthcare settings (hospitals, clinics, etc.).
This includes tasks like:
Monitoring vital signs and physical condition.
Administering medications and treatments.
Performing procedures as directed by doctors.
Assisting with daily living activities (bathing, feeding).
Providing emotional support and pain management.
2. Health Promotion and Education:
Objective: Promote healthy behaviors and educate children, families, and communities about preventive healthcare.
This includes tasks like:
Administering vaccinations.
Providing education on nutrition, hygiene, and development.
Offering breastfeeding and childbirth support.
Counseling families on safety and injury prevention.
3. Collaboration and Advocacy:
Objective: Collaborate effectively with doctors, social workers, therapists, and other healthcare professionals to ensure coordinated care for children.
Objective: Advocate for the rights and best interests of their patients, especially when children cannot speak for themselves.
This includes tasks like:
Communicating effectively with healthcare teams.
Identifying and addressing potential risks to child welfare.
Educating families about their child's condition and treatment options.
4. Professional Development and Research:
Objective: Stay up-to-date on the latest advancements in pediatric healthcare through continuing education and research.
Objective: Contribute to improving the quality of care for children by participating in research initiatives.
This includes tasks like:
Attending workshops and conferences on pediatric nursing.
Participating in clinical trials related to child health.
Implementing evidence-based practices into their daily routines.
By fulfilling these objectives, pediatric nurses play a crucial role in ensuring the optimal health and well-being of children throughout all stages of their development.
Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
CRISPR-Cas9, a revolutionary gene-editing tool, holds immense potential to reshape medicine, agriculture, and our understanding of life. But like any powerful tool, it comes with ethical considerations.
Unveiling CRISPR: This naturally occurring bacterial defense system (crRNA & Cas9 protein) fights viruses. Scientists repurposed it for precise gene editing (correction, deletion, insertion) by targeting specific DNA sequences.
The Promise: CRISPR offers exciting possibilities:
Gene Therapy: Correcting genetic diseases like cystic fibrosis.
Agriculture: Engineering crops resistant to pests and harsh environments.
Research: Studying gene function to unlock new knowledge.
The Peril: Ethical concerns demand attention:
Off-target Effects: Unintended DNA edits can have unforeseen consequences.
Eugenics: Misusing CRISPR for designer babies raises social and ethical questions.
Equity: High costs could limit access to this potentially life-saving technology.
The Path Forward: Responsible development is crucial:
International Collaboration: Clear guidelines are needed for research and human trials.
Public Education: Open discussions ensure informed decisions about CRISPR.
Prioritize Safety and Ethics: Safety and ethical principles must be paramount.
CRISPR offers a powerful tool for a better future, but responsible development and addressing ethical concerns are essential. By prioritizing safety, fostering open dialogue, and ensuring equitable access, we can harness CRISPR's power for the benefit of all. (2998 characters)
2. Introduction
• Cholera is an infection in the small intestine caused by the bacterium
Vibrio cholerae.
• The word cholera is from Greek: kholera from kholē "bile".
• The main symptoms are watery diarrhea and vomiting.
• Transmission occurs primarily by drinking water or eating food that
has been contaminated by the feces (waste product ).
3. Introduction
• It is an acute diarrheal disease caused by Vibrio Cholera typically
characterized by sudden onset of profuse,effortless,watery diarrhea
followed by vomiting, rapid dehydration, muscular cramps and
suppression of urine.
4. GLOBAL STATUS
• Cholera likely has its origins in the Indian Subcontinent; it has been
prevalent in the Ganges delta since ancient times.
• The disease first spread by trade routes (land and sea) to Russia in
1817, then to the rest of Europe, and from Europe to North America.
• Seven cholera pandemics have occurred in the past 200 years, with
the seventh originating in Indonesia in 1961.
5. SIZE OF THE PROBLEM GLOBALLY
• 140 000 – 290 000 cases were reported between 1997- 1998.
• In 1999, global incidence was about 254 000 , and Africa alone
accounted for about 81% of the global total number of cases.
• In 2000, multiple outbreaks were reported in populations in various
islands of Oceania .
6. SIZE OF THE PROBLEM GLOBALLY
• Cholera affects an estimated 3–5 million people worldwide, & causes
100,000–130,000 deaths a year as of 2010.
• This occurs mainly in the developing world.
• In the early 1980s, death rates are believed to have been greater than
3 million a year.
• Cholera remains both epidemic and endemic in many areas of the
world.
8. Epidemiology [Distribution]
• TIME:
• More common in rainy season.
• PLACE:
• Poor sanitation.
• Flies.
• Contaminated water and food.
• Poor housing.
• Overcrowding during marriages and fairs.
9. Epidemiology [Distribution]
• PERSON:
• Age:
• Cholera affects all ages.
• Gender:
• Affects both sexes.
• Gastric acidity:
• It is as effective barrier. Conditions that reduces acidity cause increased
susceptibility to cholera.
• Blood types:
• O>> B > A > AB
10. EPIDEMIOLOGY [DISTRIBUTION]
• PERSON:
• Economic Status:
• Low socio-economic persons are more prone.
• Education:
• Lack of education increases the risk.
• Personal Hygiene:
• Poor hygiene also increases the risk.
11. EPIDEMIOLOGY [DETERMINANTS]
• PRIMARY DETERMINANTS:
• Agent:
• The etiological agent is Vibrio Cholera and has 2 major biotypes: classical and El Tor,
Currently, El Tor is the predominant cholera pathogen worldwide.
• Has over 150 identified serotypes based on O-antigen
• Only O1 and O139 are toxigenic and cause Cholera disease (Water-borne illness)
• Resistance:
• Boiling for few seconds kills Vibrio Cholera.
• Toxin Production:
• Vibrio Cholera multiplies in the small intestine of human and produces an exotoxin (
enterotoxin ) that produces diarrhea.
13. RISK FACTORS
Raw or
uncooked
food
• Contaminated seafood, even in developed
• Especially jellyfish
Hypochlor
hydria
• People with low levels of stomach acid
• Such as children, older adults, and some medication.
Type O
blood
• Reasons aren't entirely clear
• Twice more likely
Poor
sanitary
conditions
• Rare in developed countries
• Common in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
14. EPIDEMIOLOGY
• SOURCE OF INFECTION:
• Stools/Vomit of cases and carriers.
• PERIOD OF COMMUNICABILITY:
• A case is infectious for a period of 7-10 days.
• Convalescent carriers are infectious for 2 to 3 wks.
• Chronic carrier state may last from a month up to 10 years or even more.
15. EPIDEMIOLOGY
• MODE OF TRANSMISSION:
• Food Borne.
• Drinking contaminated water or other drinks.
• Eating contaminated food.
• By Contact:
• Contact with contaminated fingers of infected person.
• Reservoir of infection:
• Human beings.
• Portal of entry:
• Mouth.
16. INCUBATION PERIOD:
• Incubation Period:
• From few hours to 5 days.
• Infective dose:
• 1011 Organisms are required to produce disease.
17. CARRIERS IN CHOLERA .
• A cholera carrier may be defined as an apparently healthy person
who is excreting V. Cholera in stools.
• TYPES:
• 1. PRE-CLINICAL OR INCUBATORY CARRIER:
• There are potential patients having an incubation period of 1-5 days.
• 2.CONVALESCENT CARRIER:
• The patient may continue to excrete vibrios,during his/her convalescence for
2-3 weeks.
18. CARRIERS IN CHOLERA .
• 3.CONTACT OR HEALTHY CARRIER:
• As a result of subclinical infection contracted through association with source
of infection.
• The duration of contact carrier state is usually < 10 days.
• They play an important role in the spread OF CHOLERA.
• Stool culture is positive for V.cholera.
• 4. CHRONIC CARRIER:
• The longest carrier state was found to be over 10 years.
• Gall bladder is infected in chronic carrier.
• Antibody titer against V. Cholera rises and remains positive as long as the
person harbors the organism.
19. PATHOGENICITY
• Ingestion of V. cholerae.
• Resistant to gastric acid
• Colonize small intestine
• Virulence of Non-toxigenic V. cholera O1 strain not well understood
• Secrete enterotoxin
20. PATHOGENICITY
• Enterotoxin binds to intestinal cells
• Chloride channels activated
• Release Large quantities of electrolytes & bicarbonates
• Fluid hypersecretion
• Diarrhea
• Dehydration
21. CLINICAL FEATURES
• 1 STAGE OF EVACUATION:
• Onset is abrupt.
• Profuse, painless watery diarrhea followed by vomiting.
• Patient may pass as many as 40 stools per day.
• The stool may have rice water appearance.
• The diarrhea is frequently described as "rice water" in nature and
may have a fishy odor.
23. CLINICAL FEATURES
• 2.STAGE OF COLLAPSE:
• Stage of dehydration.
• Classical signs are sunken eyes, hollow cheeks, scaphoid abdomen
and washerman’s hands and feet, absent pulse,unrecordable BP,loss
of skin elasticity, shallow and quick respirations.
• The out put of urine decreases and patient may undergo into anuria.
• Restlessness, intense thirst, cramps in legs and abdomen.
• patient's skin turning a bluish-gray hue from extreme loss of fluids.
• Death may occur at this stage due to dehydration and acidosis.
24. CLINICAL FEATURES
• 3.STAGE OF RECOVERY:
• BP begins to rise.
• Temperature.
• Urine secretion is re-established.
• If anuria persists, the patient may die of renal failure.
• Mild cases take 1-3 days for recovery.
25. INVESTIGATIONS
• Stools for D/R and C/S.
• 1-3 liters of suspected water for examination.
• Suspected samples of food.
• Direct haemaglutination test.
28. COMPLICATIONS
• The degree and duration of fluid and electrolyte loss determines the
medical consequences of cholera.
• For example, renal failure may stem from the reduced fluid flow
through the kidneys; low blood sugar (hypoglycemia)
• May result in seizures or coma, especially in the young; or
• Lowered potassium levels may trigger serious cardiac complications.
30. CONTROL AND TREATMENT
• 1. Verification of the diagnosis.
• 2. Notification.
• Cholera is notifiable within 24 hrs.
• The number of cases and death are to be reported daily and weekly till the
area is declared free from cholera.
• 3. Early case Finding.
• 4.Establishament of Treatment Centers.
• Mildly dehydrated patients should be treated at home.
• Severely dehydrated patients requiring I/V fluid.
31. Control and Treatment
• 5.SANITATION MEASURES:
• Proper water control.
• Provision of effective excreta disposal system.
• Improvement of food sanitation.
• Concurrent and terminal disinfection.
32. CONTROL AND TREATMENT
• Continued eating speeds the recovery of normal intestinal function.
• The World Health Organization recommends this generally for cases
of diarrhea no matter what the underlying cause.
• A CDC training manual specifically for cholera states:
• “Continue to breastfeed your baby if the baby has watery
diarrhea, even when traveling to get treatment. Adults and older
children should continue to eat frequently.”
33. Control and Treatment
• FLUIDS:
• In most cases, cholera can be successfully treated with oral rehydration
therapy (ORT), which is highly effective, safe, and simple to administer.
• ELECTROLYTES:
• As there frequently is initially acidosis, the potassium level may be normal,
even though large losses have occurred.
34. Control and Treatment
• ANTIBIOTICS:
• Treatments for one to three days shorten the course of the disease
and reduce the severity of the symptoms.
• Doxycycline is typically used first line.
• Other antibiotics proven to be effective include cotrimoxazole,
erythromycin, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, and furazolidone.
35. VACCINE
• A number of safe and effective oral vaccine for cholera are available.
• Dukoral, inactivated whole cell vaccine, has an overall efficacy of
about 52% during the first year after being given and 62% in the
second year, with minimal side effects.
• It is available in over 60 countries.
• One injectable vaccine was found to be effective for two to three
years.
• Work is under way to investigate the role of mass vaccination.
• WHO recommends immunization of high risk groups, such as children
and people with HIV, in countries