The document provides an overview of the endocrine system, outlining its functions, anatomy, and various hormones produced by different glands such as the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands. It explains the roles of hormones in regulating metabolism, growth, reproduction, and mood, and details various disorders related to hormonal imbalances. Key conditions like diabetes, obesity, and thyroid disorders are also discussed, stressing the importance of hormonal regulation and its impact on health.

1. Endocrine
Pathophysiology

2. Functions of the Endocrine System
• Collection of glands that produce hormones to:
Regulate metabolism
Regulate growth and development
Regulate tissue function
Regulate sexual function
Regulate reproduction
Regulate sleep
Regulate mood

3. Anatomy of the Endocrine System
• Pituitary Gland
 Master gland of the endocrine system
 Produces critical hormones
Anterior Lobe
 Releases hormones upon receiving releasing/inhibiting
hormones from the hypothalamus
Posterior Lobe
 Contains the ends of nerve cells from the
hypothalamus
 Hypothalamus sends hormones directly to the posterior
lobe via these nerves and then the pituitary gland
releases them

4. Anatomy of the Endocrine System
• Hypothalamus
 Part of the brain that links the endocrine
system to the nervous system
 Controls the pituitary gland

6. Anatomy of the Endocrine System
• Parathyroid Glands
 Four tiny glands located in the neck
 Control body’s calcium levels
 Produce parahormone
• Thyroid
 Gland found in the neck
 Regulates rate of metabolism
 Produces thyroxine

8. Anatomy of the Endocrine System
• Adrenal Glands
 One pair of ductless glands
located above the kidneys
 Adrenal Cortex produces
steroidal hormones
 Adrenal Medulla produces
epinephrine and
norepinephrine

9. Anatomy of the Endocrine System
• Pancreas
 Located partially behind the stomach and the
abdomen
 Functions as both an endocrine and exocrine
gland
 Produces digestive enzymes
 Produces insulin and glucagon

10. Anatomy of the Endocrine System
• Pineal Gland
 Small mass of tissue
near the brain
 Secretes melatonin

11. Anatomy of the Endocrine System
• Thymus Gland
 Gland located near
the heart
 Aid’s in the body’s
defense against
infection by making
antibodies

12. Anatomy of the Endocrine System
• Ovaries in females
Secrete estrogen and progesterone,
hormones that are vital to normal
reproductive development and fertility
• Testicles in males
Secrete testosterone, a hormone that is vital
to the normal development of male
characteristics

13. Endocrine Hormones
• Hormones are the chemical messengers of the
endocrine system that are released into the blood
• Protein Hormones
Class of hormones that cannot pass through the cell
membrane
Less likely to be stored in the body
• Steroid Hormones
Class of hormones that can pass through the cell
membrane
Can be stored in the body

14. Endocrine Hormones
• Prostaglandins
 Local hormones that do not enter the
bloodstream
• Growth Hormone
 Secreted by anterior pituitary gland
 Stimulates bone growth
• Luteinizing Hormone
 Protein hormone secreted by anterior pituitary
gland
 Stimulates ovulation in females and androgen
production in males

15. Endocrine Hormones
• Prolactin
Peptide hormone released by anterior pituitary
Promotes lactation
• Follicle-Stimulating Hormone
Secreted in increasing amounts during puberty
by the anterior pituitary
Stimulates development of reproductive cell
follicles

16. Endocrine Hormones
• Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
 Peptide hormone released from anterior
pituitary
 Stimulates production and secretion of steroid
hormones by adrenal cortex
• Oxytocin
 Produced by the hypothalamus and released
from posterior pituitary
 Induces contractions of uterine muscles during
labor

17. Endocrine Hormones
• Antidiuretic Hormone
 Secreted by posterior pituitary
 Aids in water reabsorption by the kidney
• Calcitonin
 Produced by thyroid gland
 Decreases blood calcium levels by stimulating
calcium deposit in the bones
 Antagonist of parathyroid hormone
• Parahormone
 Secreted by parathyroid glands
 Controls calcium and phosphate metabolism

18. Endocrine Hormones
• Cortisol
 Secreted from adrenal cortex
 Aids the body during stress
 Regulates glucose, carbohydrate, and fat levels
• Aldosterone
 Corticosteroid hormone secreted by adrenal cortex
 Regulates mineral balance in blood
 Controls fluid volume

19. Endocrine Hormones
• Insulin
 Hormone secreted by the beta cells of the
pancreas
 Responsible for regulating the metabolism of
glucose
• Glucagon
 Hormone secreted by the alpha cells of the
pancreas
 Raises blood glucose levels

20. Endocrine Hormones
• Estrogen
 General term for female steroid sex hormones
 Secreted by the ovary
 Responsible for typical female sexual
characteristics
• Progesterone
 Hormone produced by the ovaries
 Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual
cycle

21. Endocrine Hormones
• Testosterone
 Male sex hormone produced by the testes
 Promotes maturation of the reproductive system
accessory structures
 Promotes development of the male secondary sex
characteristics
• Melatonin
 Hormone secreted by the pineal gland
 Used to regulate sleep patterns

22. Classification of Hormones
• Anterior Pituitary Gland
Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH)
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Growth Hormone (GH)
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

23. Classification of Hormones
• Posterior Pituitary Gland
Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH)
Oxytocin

24. Hormone Regulation
• Nervous System Signals
• Chemical Changes in the Blood
• Hormones regulate other hormones

25. Gigantism
• Acromegaly
• Thicker skull and jaw
• Occurs after joint plates fuse

26. Hyperthyroidism
• Common Cause: Graves
Disease
• Common Symptoms:
exopthalamos, goiter,
heat intolerance, and
anxiety

27. Hypothyroidism
• Very familial; 4 times more likely in
women
• Common Symptoms: weight gain, cold
intolerance, and fatigue
• Myxedema
Fluid buildup that does not pit
Can look like fibromyalgia because of
muscle aches and trigger point
tenderness
Sparse hair, brittle nails, Buffalo
hump

28. Thyroid Storm
• T3 and T4 are dumped into the system
• Causes tachycardia, fever, and agitation
• Life-threatening condition associated
with untreated or undertreated
hyperthyroidism

29. Thyroid Cancer
• Very treatable
• Most are benign – only 5%
are malignant and most do
not metastasize
• Palpation will be painless,
unilateral, and in one spot

30. Parathyroid Cancer
• Cannot be easily distinguished from thyroid
cancer
• Weakness, feeling tired, lump in the neck

31. Addison’s Disease
• HYPOADRENAL
autoimmune disease
• Skin changes color to a
slight grey

32. Cushing’s Syndrome
• HYPERADRENAL
• Too much glucocorticoids in the system
• Can cause muscle wasting, bone
demineralization, and ligament laxity

33. Diabetes
• Fasting plasma glucose >126 mg/dL
• Insulin makes glucose transporters closer to
the cell
• Three types:
Type 1
Type 2
Gestational

34. Type 1 Diabetes
• Autoimmune; typically presents in under
age 20
• Insulin produces B-cell destruction
• Risk Factors: sibling or parents have type 1

36. Type 2 Diabetes
• Obesity; insulin resistance; pancreas intact
• Receptor does not bind to insulin as well as
it used to
• Hyperglycemia develops slowly
• Risk Factors: genetic predisposition;
overweight, over 45 y/o, sedentary lifestyle,
women who have had a baby over 9 lbs,
and low HDL levels

38. Gestational Diabetes
• Associated with type 2 diabetes
• Glucose intolerance with pregnancy
• increased risk of diabetes later on if it
continues >6 weeks after pregnancy

40. Acute Hyperglycemia
• Early Signs
 Blood sugar >180 mg/dL
 Blurred vision
 Ketones, dry skin, fatigue
 Thirsty, increased urination
• Late Signs
 Blood sugar > 240 mg/dL
 Nausea/vomiting
 Deep/rapid breathing
 Large ketones in urine, fruity breath
• Some patients don’t sense changes because of neuropathy

41. Acute Hypoglycemia
• Causes: over treatment with insulin, missed meal,
exercising when insulin is peaking, or stress
• Early Signs: tachycardia, hunger, headache, dizziness,
sweating, shaking, pale skin, and tingling around the
mouth
• Late Signs: slurred speech, confusion, sudden
moodiness, clumsiness, jerky movements, seizures,
and syncope
• Treatment: quick action is essential

42. Obesity: BMI Classification
• Underweight <18.5
• Normal Weight 18.5 to 24.9
• Overweight 25 to 29.9
• Obese >30

43. Obesity: Fat Locations
• Subcutaneous Fat
Necessary for thermal control
• Intra-abdominal Fat
Abdominal obesity is the most important
factor in determining pre-diabetic state
1 in 5 adults have metabolic syndrome
Goal: avoid fat around organs, especially the
liver

44. Obesity: Hormonal Regulation
• Fat
 Largest and most active endocrine organ
 Releases 50 hormones
• Adiponectin
 Signals to the brain that we are full
 As fat cells get bigger, less is released