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What are Electron Configurations ex.docxajullo3333
What are Electron Configurations?
The electron configuration of an element describes how electrons are distributed in its atomic orbitals. Electron configurations of atoms follow a standard notation in which all electron-containing atomic subshells with number of electrons are placed in a sequence.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
2. Atomic orbitals
Atomic orbitals are the region of space in which
there is a high probability of finding the electron.
In learning about electron configuration, you will
learn the actual pathways and arrangement of
electrons.
2
3. Electron Configuration
Electron configuration:
shows how electrons are arranged around the nucleus.
is unique to each element.
allows us to predict chemical and bonding behaviors.
Example:
3
4. Quantum numbers
Quantum numbers describe electrons.
There are four quantum numbers:
1. Principle Quantum number : n
2. Secondary Quantum number: l
3. Magnetic Quantum number: ml
4. Spin Magnetic number: ms
4
Tell us which
orbital the
electron is in.
Used for
writing electron
configurations
5. Principle quantum number : n
The Principle Quantum
Number (n) is the
electron shell which
coincides with the
Period (row) of the
Periodic Table.
The principle quantum
number determines the
size of the atomic orbital.
The higher the value of n
the larger the atomic
orbital.
5
PERIOD n
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
When orbitals have the same “n”
they are said to occupy the same
shell.
7. Secondary (Subshell)
Quantum number: l
The Secondary Quantum
Number divides the shell
into subshells.
The values of l have letter
designations and specific
electron cloud shapes.
The letter designation is to
avoid confusion with the
principal quantum number.
The value of l is determined
by l=n-1 .
7
l 0 1 2 3
Letter s p d f
Max
electrons
2 6 10 14
8. Magnetic Quantum number: ml 8
The magnetic quantum splits the subshells into individual orbitals based on their
orientation in space, n value, l value and shape.
Each individual orbital holds 2 electrons.
The number of orbitals per subshell is determined by 2l + 1 = ml and remember to
determine l the formula is n-1 = l .
n l ml #
orbitals
Orbital
name
#
electrons
1 0 0 1 1s 2
2 0 0 1 2s 2
2 1 -1 , 0 , +1 3 2p 6
3 0 0 1 3s 2
3 3p
3 3d
4 4s
9. Quantum Number
Interdependence
Continue filling in the chart . . .
9
n l ml #
orbitals
Orbital
name
#
electrons
1 0 0 1 1s 2
2 0 0 1 2s 2
2 1 -1 , 0 , +1 3 2p 6
3 0 0 1 3s 2
3 1 -1, 0, +1 3 3p 6
3 3d
4 4s
4 4p
4 4d
4 4f
10. Quantum Number
Interdependence
If you used the formulas correctly your table should look like this…
10
n l ml #
orbitals
Orbital
name
#
electrons
1 0 0 1 1s 2
2 0 0 1 2s 2
2 1 -1 , 0 , +1 3 2p 6
3 0 0 1 3s 2
3 1 -1, 0, +1 3 3p 6
3 2 -2 , -1, 0, +1, +2 5 3d 10
4 0 0 1 4s 2
4 1 -1, 0, +1 3 4p 6
4 2 -2 , -1, 0, +1, +2 5 4d 10
4 3 -3, -2 , -1 , 0, +1, +2, +3 7 4f 14
11. Periodic Table:
Secondary Quantum Locations
The Periodic Table shows the Secondary Quantum Locations in blocks.
Do not assume that the elements found in the specific blocks ONLY contain these
subshell shapes. That is NOT the case. This graphic is showing you where the subshells
BEGIN.
As you can see the s block is always at the beginning of a period, followed by the d and
finally p. It is not until Period 6 and 7 that f block shows up.
11
12. Spin Magnetic Quantum
The fourth number (ms) specifies how many electrons can
occupy that orbital and is used for electron spin.
Example: +1/2 = spin up; -1/2 = spin down
This quantum number is only used in orbital diagrams.
12
13. Reading the
Electron Configuration
When reading an electron configuration
keep these four things in mind. . .
the number indicates the shell number (Period,
energy level)
the letter indicates the sub-shell within the
shell (shape).
the superscript indicates the number of
electrons in the sub-shell (s = 2, p = 6, d = 10,
f = 14)
Ml indicates how many orbitals you will have
for each shell (Period, energy level.)
When you add the superscript numbers
together you should get the total number of
electrons for that specific atom.
Example: carbon has six electrons and its
electron configuration is 1s22s22p2
2 +2 +2 =6 total electrons
13
14. Writing the
Electron Configuration
When writing an electron configuration keep
these SAME four things in mind. . .
the number indicates the shell number (Period,
energy level)
the letter indicates the sub-shell within the
shell (shape).
the superscript indicates the number of
electrons in the sub-shell (s = 2, p = 6, d = 10,
f = 14).
Ml indicates how many orbitals you will
have for each shell (Period, energy level.)
When you write the electron
configuration you always start at 1s and
fill each shell before moving unto the
next. Use the fill order graphic to guide
you.
14
16. Writing Electron Configuration using
the Periodic Table
The periodic table can be used to find the electron configuration for an element
First find the element on the periodic table
Then follow through each element block in order by stating the energy level,
the orbital type, and the number of electrons per orbital type until you arrive
at the element.
ALWAYS START AT HYDROGEN!
16
18. Writing the
Electron Configuration
Lets try to write the electron configurations
for the following elements. Remember to fill
the orbital before proceeding to the next.
Use the atomic number of the element for
the number of electrons.
(s = 2, p = 6, d = 10, f = 14)
H =
He =
Li =
Be =
B =
C =
18
19. Writing the
Electron Configuration
Are these the answers you wrote down?
H = 1s1
He = 1s2
Li = 1s2 2s1
Be = 1s2 2s2
B = 1s2 2s2 2p1
C = 1s2 2s2 2p2
GREAT JOB!!!
19
20. Practice
Draw the following elements’ orbital diagrams and
electron configurations.
K, Potassium
Kr, Krypton
Pb, Lead
20
21. Practice
Answers
K, Potassium
1s22s22p63s23p64s1
Kr, Krypton
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6
Pb, Lead
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f145d106p2
21
22. Noble Gas configuration
To write a noble gas (shorthand) configuration for any element,
count backwards from that element until you reach a noble gas.
Write that element in brackets.
Then, continue forward with next sub-shell(s) - see the
following version of the periodic chart that shows the sub-shell
order with respect to the elements.
For example C = 1s2 2s2 2p2
Carbon’s Noble Gas Configuration is = [He] 2s2 2p3
It may not seem like a big difference but when you work with
elements of higher atomic numbers it is a great time saver when
writing out their configuration.
For example Br = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5
The Noble Gas configuration of bromine is = [Ar]4s2 3d10 4p5
22
23. Noble Gas configuration
For example, if we wanted to do the shorthand
configuration for sodium (Na), you would count back
one element to neon (Ne) and put Ne in brackets.
[Ne]
Put this element symbol in brackets and then, noting
that the next correct sub-shell is 3s, include the rest of
the electrons as we did with the smaller elements.
[Ne]3s1
23
24. Practice
Write the following noble gas configuration for the
following elements.
Be, Beryllium
F, Fluorine
Ba, Barium
24
25. Practice
Write the following noble gas configuration for the
following elements.
Be, Beryllium
[He]2s2
F, Fluorine
[He]2s22p5
Pt, Platinum
[Xe]6s2
25
26. Electron configuration of
ions
When writing the electron configuration of ions you
follow the same rules, except make sure you use the
CORRECT number of electrons.
For example C+2 will have two less electrons than
normal.
Instead of the normal C = 1s2 2s2 2p2
C+2 = 1s2 2s2
For example C-2 will have two more electrons than
normal.
C-2= 1s2 2s2 2p4
26
27. Orbital Diagrams:
Mapping the electrons
Orbital diagrams show where an
electron is located.
Also show electrons are spinning.
Remember electrons are lazy and
anti-social!
27
ENERGY
INCREASES
28. Creating an
Orbital Diagram
Three rules should be followed when creating orbital diagrams.
1. The Aufbau Principle states each electron occupies the lowest
energy orbital.
2. The Pauli Exclusion Principle says that only two electrons can fit
into a single orbital (and they do so facing opposite directions).
3. Hund’s rule states that electrons go into different orbitals in the
same sub-level before doubling up inside orbitals.
Example:
28
29. Creating an
Orbital Diagram
Create an orbital diagram for the following elements.
*Remember to check their atomic number for the correct number of electrons you need to map.
29
The first three numbers (n, l, ml ) specify the particular orbital of the electron and are used for writing the electron configurations. The fourth number (ms) specifies how many electrons can occupy that orbital and is used for electron spin.
Orbital diagrams are pictorial descriptions of the electrons in an atom. The orbital diagram not only shows you where an electron is located, but how it is spinning.
Energy increases as you move from the lowest energy levels to the highest.
Electrons spin opposite of each other. We usually depict the electron spins using arrows that point either up or down.
