Ecology and evolution
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The document discusses three topics related to the documentary "Home": 1. It asks readers to explain one of the environmental problems mentioned in the documentary and propose a sustainable solution. 2. It asks readers to mention an example of sustainable development shown at the end of the documentary. 3. It asks readers to describe at least two statistical data points that are described in the documentary.
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UNIT 3 POPULATION ECOLOGY (1)
This document provides an overview of population ecology, including terminology, patterns of dispersion, population growth, survival patterns, factors influencing population growth, methods for determining population size, human population trends, and social organization. Some key points include:
- Population ecology is the study of populations in relation to their environment. A population is a group of the same species in the same area. Density, dispersion, demography, birth and death rates are important concepts.
- Population growth can follow exponential or logistic patterns. Carrying capacity is the maximum population an environment can sustain. Survival patterns include Type I, II, and III curves.
- Population growth is influenced by density-dependent factors like competition, disease, predation, and
Population genetics basic concepts
Population genetics is the study of genetic variation within species. The key concepts are:
1) The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant from generation to generation if mating is random and other evolutionary forces are absent.
2) Founder effects occur when new populations are established by a small number of individuals, resulting in a loss of genetic variation compared to the original population.
3) Factors like non-random mating, genetic drift, migration, mutation, and natural selection can cause changes in allele frequencies over time, known as microevolution.
Genetic diversity lecture notes
Genetic diversity is the variation of genes within and between populations of a species. It is important for species survival and adaptability. Loss of genetic diversity reduces a species' ability to adapt to environmental changes and increases risks of inbreeding, which can lead to extinction. Key causes of loss of diversity include habitat loss and degradation, pollution, monocultures in agriculture that replace diverse landraces and varieties, and overexploitation of wild species. Conservation aims to preserve natural patterns of genetic diversity to maintain options for future evolution. Loss of genetic diversity is potentially the most serious environmental problem because it cannot be reversed within just a few generations.
Population ecology
Population ecology examines how populations change over time based on birth, death, immigration, and emigration rates. Key concepts include:
- Populations have a density that can be influenced by density-dependent and density-independent factors.
- Natality is the birth rate and mortality is the death rate. These determine a population's growth rate.
- Populations can exhibit exponential or logistic growth patterns depending on available resources/carrying capacity.
- Reproductive strategies like r/K selection influence life history traits and population dynamics.
- Competition between species occupying the same niche frequently leads to competitive exclusion of one species.
Species concept
Organisms are classified into a hierarchical classification that groups closely related individuals.
The species is the basic biological unit around which classifications are based.
Extinction of biodiversity
The document discusses extinction and biodiversity loss. It defines extinction as occurring when the last member of a species dies. The passenger pigeon is provided as an example, with the last one dying alone in a zoo in 1914 after the species was already functionally extinct in the wild. Major causes of extinction discussed include habitat degradation and destruction from human activities like pollution, climate change, and overpopulation. Statistics are given on current extinction rates from human impacts being 1500 times the natural rate, with many species projected to be lost in the coming centuries if trends continue. The major impacts of biodiversity loss on human concerns like medicine, agriculture, ecosystem services, and moral obligations are also briefly touched on.
Gene pool
The gene pool refers to the total collection of genes and genetic variants within an interbreeding population. It can change over time through mechanisms like mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift in response to environmental pressures. Larger, more diverse gene pools may help populations better adapt to changing conditions, while smaller pools with less variation could hinder adaptation. Genetic variation within a population is measured by the number and frequencies of different gene alleles present.
Competition intra and inter-specific
presentation contain different type of interactions, competition-intra and inter-specific, mechanism of competition-Exploitation and Interference, Mathematical models of Competition i.e. Hutchinson Ratio, Exponential Growth, Logistic Model, Lotka-Volterra Competition Model, Tilman's Resource Model, Results of Competition i.e. Range restriction, Competitive Displacement, Competitive Exclusion , Competitive Displacement Hypothesis, Ecological Niche, Evolution of new species, Factors Affecting Competition, Case studies
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UNIT 3 POPULATION ECOLOGY (1)
This document provides an overview of population ecology, including terminology, patterns of dispersion, population growth, survival patterns, factors influencing population growth, methods for determining population size, human population trends, and social organization. Some key points include:
- Population ecology is the study of populations in relation to their environment. A population is a group of the same species in the same area. Density, dispersion, demography, birth and death rates are important concepts.
- Population growth can follow exponential or logistic patterns. Carrying capacity is the maximum population an environment can sustain. Survival patterns include Type I, II, and III curves.
- Population growth is influenced by density-dependent factors like competition, disease, predation, and
Population genetics basic concepts
Population genetics is the study of genetic variation within species. The key concepts are:
1) The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant from generation to generation if mating is random and other evolutionary forces are absent.
2) Founder effects occur when new populations are established by a small number of individuals, resulting in a loss of genetic variation compared to the original population.
3) Factors like non-random mating, genetic drift, migration, mutation, and natural selection can cause changes in allele frequencies over time, known as microevolution.
Genetic diversity lecture notes
Genetic diversity is the variation of genes within and between populations of a species. It is important for species survival and adaptability. Loss of genetic diversity reduces a species' ability to adapt to environmental changes and increases risks of inbreeding, which can lead to extinction. Key causes of loss of diversity include habitat loss and degradation, pollution, monocultures in agriculture that replace diverse landraces and varieties, and overexploitation of wild species. Conservation aims to preserve natural patterns of genetic diversity to maintain options for future evolution. Loss of genetic diversity is potentially the most serious environmental problem because it cannot be reversed within just a few generations.
Population ecology
Population ecology examines how populations change over time based on birth, death, immigration, and emigration rates. Key concepts include:
- Populations have a density that can be influenced by density-dependent and density-independent factors.
- Natality is the birth rate and mortality is the death rate. These determine a population's growth rate.
- Populations can exhibit exponential or logistic growth patterns depending on available resources/carrying capacity.
- Reproductive strategies like r/K selection influence life history traits and population dynamics.
- Competition between species occupying the same niche frequently leads to competitive exclusion of one species.
Species concept
Organisms are classified into a hierarchical classification that groups closely related individuals.
The species is the basic biological unit around which classifications are based.
Extinction of biodiversity
The document discusses extinction and biodiversity loss. It defines extinction as occurring when the last member of a species dies. The passenger pigeon is provided as an example, with the last one dying alone in a zoo in 1914 after the species was already functionally extinct in the wild. Major causes of extinction discussed include habitat degradation and destruction from human activities like pollution, climate change, and overpopulation. Statistics are given on current extinction rates from human impacts being 1500 times the natural rate, with many species projected to be lost in the coming centuries if trends continue. The major impacts of biodiversity loss on human concerns like medicine, agriculture, ecosystem services, and moral obligations are also briefly touched on.
Gene pool
The gene pool refers to the total collection of genes and genetic variants within an interbreeding population. It can change over time through mechanisms like mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift in response to environmental pressures. Larger, more diverse gene pools may help populations better adapt to changing conditions, while smaller pools with less variation could hinder adaptation. Genetic variation within a population is measured by the number and frequencies of different gene alleles present.
Competition intra and inter-specific
presentation contain different type of interactions, competition-intra and inter-specific, mechanism of competition-Exploitation and Interference, Mathematical models of Competition i.e. Hutchinson Ratio, Exponential Growth, Logistic Model, Lotka-Volterra Competition Model, Tilman's Resource Model, Results of Competition i.e. Range restriction, Competitive Displacement, Competitive Exclusion , Competitive Displacement Hypothesis, Ecological Niche, Evolution of new species, Factors Affecting Competition, Case studies
Limiting factors
1) Limiting factors determine the maximum population size that an environment can support by restricting available resources. Common limiting factors include food, water, oxygen, temperature, light, and space.
2) Limiting factors can be density-dependent, affecting population size directly, or density-independent like natural disasters.
3) Biological factors include predation, competition, and parasitism through interaction between species, while physical factors comprise resources like nutrients, water, and temperature. Limiting factors regulate population growth and distribution.
Species concept
Species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups. The biological species concept has been prevalent in the evolutionary literature for the last several decades and is emphasized in many college-level biology courses. It is probably the species concept most familiar to biologists in diverse fields, such as conservation biology, forestry, fisheries, and wildlife management. Species defined by the biological species concept have also been championed as units of conservation. The species concept for most phycologists is based on the morphological characters and hence the term ‘species’ means morphospecies. On the other hand, for evolutionary biologists, the term means biological species that can be defined as a reproductive community of populations (reproductively isolated from others) that occupy a specific niche in Nature.
Global pattern of biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to genetic, species, and ecosystem variation within a specific area or planet. It is measured by both species richness, the number of species, and evenness, the number of individuals belonging to each species. Several factors influence biodiversity patterns, including geological history, climate, resource availability, and competition. The tropics generally have the highest species diversity due to high productivity, complex habitat structures, and survival of fragments during past climate changes. Both random processes and necessity, through competition and interaction laws, along with historical factors shape current species diversity patterns in a given location.
Biotic Interactions
- Biotic interactions include predator-prey relationships, plant-herbivore relationships, competition, and symbiosis. Abiotic interactions involve interactions between organisms and environmental factors like temperature, light, and nutrients.
- Density-dependent factors like predation and competition cause populations to decrease when densities are high and increase when densities are low. Density-independent factors like fires and floods impact populations independently of their densities.
- Predator-prey relationships can follow stable, cyclical, erratic, or extinction patterns depending on factors like carrying capacity and reproduction rates of both species. Predators benefit from food while prey benefit from reduced competition.
Natural selection
Darwin explored ideas about evolution through natural selection. His observations of finches in the Galapagos led him to predict that one species can evolve into another through natural selection. Natural selection is the process by which organisms with traits best suited to their environment survive and reproduce, passing on those favorable traits. Darwin proposed that small, inherited variations combined with differential reproductive success could result in the emergence of new species over generations.
Population ecologyy
It is as per the syllabus of M.Sc. NRM including detailed study of population ecology
It describes the meaning of population with respect to ecology and includes population attributes, dynamics, dispersal, Population growth models, survivorship curves and limitations.
It also entails factors that influence and regulate population growth on the basis of density.
best ever ppt on speciation by Nagesh sadili
1) The document discusses speciation in insects, including different species concepts, types of speciation, and mechanisms of speciation.
2) It describes four main species concepts: typological, nominalistic, biological, and evolutionary. The biological species concept, which defines species as groups of interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated from other such groups, is most widely accepted.
3) Speciation occurs through the evolution of reproductive barriers between populations, including prezygotic barriers like habitat isolation and postzygotic barriers such as hybrid sterility. Disruptive selection can divide populations into distinct species.
Speciation
This document discusses speciation and the evolution of new species. It defines different types of speciation, including allopatric, parapatric, and sympatric speciation. Reproductive isolation is a key factor in speciation, with both prezygotic barriers that prevent interbreeding and postzygotic barriers affecting the viability of hybrid offspring. Speciation occurs over long periods of time through either gradual evolution or punctuated equilibrium. The document also covers taxonomy, phylogeny, cladistics, extinction, and adaptive radiation.
Gaia hypothesis
Gaia thory suggests that organisms interact with their environment to form a self regulatory, complex system.
r and k selection
This document discusses r and K selection theory, which seeks to explain how traits evolve in response to environmental variation and mortality. It examines how traits are interrelated and constrained by ecology. R and K selection theory predicts demographic responses to disturbances at different spatial and temporal scales. The most notable example is MacArthur and Wilson's theory of r and K selection based on island biogeography. R-selected species thrive in variable environments and have high fecundity, while K-selected species exist in stable environments and invest more in parental care and fewer offspring. The r and K classification represents ends of a continuum, with most species falling somewhere in between.
Laws of limiting factors
This document discusses limiting factors and three laws related to limiting factors:
1. Shelford's Law of Tolerance states that organisms have minimum, maximum, and optimal thresholds for environmental factors that determine their success. Outside the thresholds, survival rates decline.
2. Liebig's Law of the Minimum states that growth is limited not by total resources but by the scarcest resource. Like a barrel limited by its shortest stave, increasing the limiting factor increases growth until a new factor becomes limiting.
3. Blackman's Law of Limiting Factors says that when a process depends on multiple factors, its rate is determined by the slowest factor.
Ecological niche
Ecological niche refers to an organism's role and position in its environment, including where it finds food and shelter and what environmental conditions it requires. An organism's niche is influenced by biotic factors like availability of food and predators as well as abiotic factors like temperature, soil nutrients, and light levels. Earthworms are an example of niche construction, as they physically and chemically modify soil in a way that allows them to survive on land. Niches can be fundamental, representing all possible resources an organism could use, or realized, reflecting the niche an organism actually occupies due to competition. The competitive exclusion principle states that two species with identical niches cannot coexist long-term. Resource partitioning allows similar species to co
Importance of biodiversity
Importance
Intrinsic Value
Extinctions
What is Biodiversity?
Genetic Biodiversity
Species Biodiversity
Ecosystem Biodiversity
Ecosystem Function
Marine Biodiversity
Caribbean Diversity
Extinctions
Threats to Biodiversity
Protection & MPA’s
The measurement of biodiversity
This document discusses various methods for measuring biodiversity, including species richness, evenness, disparity, and genetic variability. It notes that biodiversity cannot be reduced to a single number due to the complexities of various taxonomic concepts and differences in ecosystems. While higher productivity generally correlates with greater biodiversity, preserving biodiversity poses challenges for policymakers given difficulties in comparing biodiversity across environments.
05 population variation and selection
This document discusses population variation and selection. It provides an overview of key concepts:
1. Natural selection acts on individuals but only populations evolve over generations as allele frequencies change. This was shown using a population of finches where large-beaked birds survived a drought better.
2. Three mechanisms can cause changes in allele frequencies in a population: natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow. Natural selection is the only mechanism that causes adaptive evolution.
3. Genetic variation within populations is required for evolution. Variation comes from new mutations and recombination during sexual reproduction. The Hardy-Weinberg principle describes populations where allele frequencies remain constant without evolutionary influences.
Genetics Chapter 24:Conservation Genetics
Conservation genetics applies genetic methods to preserve biodiversity and avoid species extinction. It studies levels of genetic diversity within and among populations and species. Small, isolated populations are vulnerable to loss of diversity through genetic drift, inbreeding, and reduced gene flow. Ex situ conservation involves captive breeding programs and gene banks, while in situ conservation preserves species in their natural habitats through parks and reserves. Population augmentation also aims to boost small populations but risks outbreeding depression if not done carefully. Conservation genetics uses an interdisciplinary approach to understand and preserve genetic diversity in threatened species.
Species diversity
1. Species diversity refers to the number and variety of species in a given region. It takes into account both the number of species and how evenly abundant they are.
2. There are three main types of species: endemic, exotic, and cosmopolitan. Endemic species are restricted to a particular area while exotic species have been transported by humans.
3. Factors that affect species diversity include speciation, extinction, migration, habitat destruction, and the introduction of invasive species. Speciation occurs through geographic isolation or reductions in gene flow. Extinction can be caused by overharvesting, pollution, and habitat loss.
Population ecologyy
Population ecology is the study of how population numbers change over time and the factors influencing those changes. Key factors influencing population growth include birth and death rates, carrying capacity, and density dependence. Exponential growth leads to rapid increases at low densities while logistic growth levels off as density approaches the environment's carrying capacity due to competition for limited resources. Population regulation involves both density-dependent factors like competition, disease, and predation as well as density-independent environmental factors.
Conservation of Genetic Resources
This document discusses genetic resource conservation. It describes ex situ conservation methods like seed banks, in vitro storage, cryopreservation, and botanical gardens. Seed banks are the most widely used method, storing seeds at low moisture and sub-zero temperatures to preserve them for decades. In vitro storage maintains plant explants in sterile culture but risks somaclonal variation. Cryopreservation freezes plant materials in liquid nitrogen and may allow indefinite storage. Field gene banks and botanical gardens conserve small numbers of species. In situ conservation maintains genetic variation on site through protected areas, on-farms, and home gardens. The document emphasizes an integrated approach using complementary ex situ and in situ methods.
Patterns of biodiveristy
1. There are various patterns of distribution for different species based on factors like habitat, geography, and climate. No two species have an identical distribution.
2. The causes of distribution patterns vary depending on the taxonomic level from broad families to specific genera.
3. Distribution patterns also vary depending on the spatial scale examined from global to local levels. Key factors that influence patterns include geological history, climate, food and habitat availability, competition, and human activities.
مشروووووع الوراثه
This document discusses several key concepts in population genetics:
1) Genetic variation is important for adaptation, environmental change, conservation, and divergence of populations. Variation allows populations to survive over time while lack of variation leads to extinction.
2) Population genetics studies genetic structure, allele frequencies, and how they change over time due to evolutionary processes like mutation, genetic drift, natural selection, and gene flow.
3) The Hardy-Weinberg principle describes how allele and genotype frequencies remain stable without these evolutionary forces acting on a population.
"Genomic approaches for dissecting fitness traits in forest tree landscapes"
"Genomic approaches for dissecting fitness traits in forest
tree landscapes" presentation by Ciro De Pace, Università degli Studi della Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
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Limiting factors
1) Limiting factors determine the maximum population size that an environment can support by restricting available resources. Common limiting factors include food, water, oxygen, temperature, light, and space.
2) Limiting factors can be density-dependent, affecting population size directly, or density-independent like natural disasters.
3) Biological factors include predation, competition, and parasitism through interaction between species, while physical factors comprise resources like nutrients, water, and temperature. Limiting factors regulate population growth and distribution.
Species concept
Species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups. The biological species concept has been prevalent in the evolutionary literature for the last several decades and is emphasized in many college-level biology courses. It is probably the species concept most familiar to biologists in diverse fields, such as conservation biology, forestry, fisheries, and wildlife management. Species defined by the biological species concept have also been championed as units of conservation. The species concept for most phycologists is based on the morphological characters and hence the term ‘species’ means morphospecies. On the other hand, for evolutionary biologists, the term means biological species that can be defined as a reproductive community of populations (reproductively isolated from others) that occupy a specific niche in Nature.
Global pattern of biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to genetic, species, and ecosystem variation within a specific area or planet. It is measured by both species richness, the number of species, and evenness, the number of individuals belonging to each species. Several factors influence biodiversity patterns, including geological history, climate, resource availability, and competition. The tropics generally have the highest species diversity due to high productivity, complex habitat structures, and survival of fragments during past climate changes. Both random processes and necessity, through competition and interaction laws, along with historical factors shape current species diversity patterns in a given location.
Biotic Interactions
- Biotic interactions include predator-prey relationships, plant-herbivore relationships, competition, and symbiosis. Abiotic interactions involve interactions between organisms and environmental factors like temperature, light, and nutrients.
- Density-dependent factors like predation and competition cause populations to decrease when densities are high and increase when densities are low. Density-independent factors like fires and floods impact populations independently of their densities.
- Predator-prey relationships can follow stable, cyclical, erratic, or extinction patterns depending on factors like carrying capacity and reproduction rates of both species. Predators benefit from food while prey benefit from reduced competition.
Natural selection
Darwin explored ideas about evolution through natural selection. His observations of finches in the Galapagos led him to predict that one species can evolve into another through natural selection. Natural selection is the process by which organisms with traits best suited to their environment survive and reproduce, passing on those favorable traits. Darwin proposed that small, inherited variations combined with differential reproductive success could result in the emergence of new species over generations.
Population ecologyy
It is as per the syllabus of M.Sc. NRM including detailed study of population ecology
It describes the meaning of population with respect to ecology and includes population attributes, dynamics, dispersal, Population growth models, survivorship curves and limitations.
It also entails factors that influence and regulate population growth on the basis of density.
best ever ppt on speciation by Nagesh sadili
1) The document discusses speciation in insects, including different species concepts, types of speciation, and mechanisms of speciation.
2) It describes four main species concepts: typological, nominalistic, biological, and evolutionary. The biological species concept, which defines species as groups of interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated from other such groups, is most widely accepted.
3) Speciation occurs through the evolution of reproductive barriers between populations, including prezygotic barriers like habitat isolation and postzygotic barriers such as hybrid sterility. Disruptive selection can divide populations into distinct species.
Speciation
This document discusses speciation and the evolution of new species. It defines different types of speciation, including allopatric, parapatric, and sympatric speciation. Reproductive isolation is a key factor in speciation, with both prezygotic barriers that prevent interbreeding and postzygotic barriers affecting the viability of hybrid offspring. Speciation occurs over long periods of time through either gradual evolution or punctuated equilibrium. The document also covers taxonomy, phylogeny, cladistics, extinction, and adaptive radiation.
Gaia hypothesis
Gaia thory suggests that organisms interact with their environment to form a self regulatory, complex system.
r and k selection
This document discusses r and K selection theory, which seeks to explain how traits evolve in response to environmental variation and mortality. It examines how traits are interrelated and constrained by ecology. R and K selection theory predicts demographic responses to disturbances at different spatial and temporal scales. The most notable example is MacArthur and Wilson's theory of r and K selection based on island biogeography. R-selected species thrive in variable environments and have high fecundity, while K-selected species exist in stable environments and invest more in parental care and fewer offspring. The r and K classification represents ends of a continuum, with most species falling somewhere in between.
Laws of limiting factors
This document discusses limiting factors and three laws related to limiting factors:
1. Shelford's Law of Tolerance states that organisms have minimum, maximum, and optimal thresholds for environmental factors that determine their success. Outside the thresholds, survival rates decline.
2. Liebig's Law of the Minimum states that growth is limited not by total resources but by the scarcest resource. Like a barrel limited by its shortest stave, increasing the limiting factor increases growth until a new factor becomes limiting.
3. Blackman's Law of Limiting Factors says that when a process depends on multiple factors, its rate is determined by the slowest factor.
Ecological niche
Ecological niche refers to an organism's role and position in its environment, including where it finds food and shelter and what environmental conditions it requires. An organism's niche is influenced by biotic factors like availability of food and predators as well as abiotic factors like temperature, soil nutrients, and light levels. Earthworms are an example of niche construction, as they physically and chemically modify soil in a way that allows them to survive on land. Niches can be fundamental, representing all possible resources an organism could use, or realized, reflecting the niche an organism actually occupies due to competition. The competitive exclusion principle states that two species with identical niches cannot coexist long-term. Resource partitioning allows similar species to co
Importance of biodiversity
Importance
Intrinsic Value
Extinctions
What is Biodiversity?
Genetic Biodiversity
Species Biodiversity
Ecosystem Biodiversity
Ecosystem Function
Marine Biodiversity
Caribbean Diversity
Extinctions
Threats to Biodiversity
Protection & MPA’s
The measurement of biodiversity
This document discusses various methods for measuring biodiversity, including species richness, evenness, disparity, and genetic variability. It notes that biodiversity cannot be reduced to a single number due to the complexities of various taxonomic concepts and differences in ecosystems. While higher productivity generally correlates with greater biodiversity, preserving biodiversity poses challenges for policymakers given difficulties in comparing biodiversity across environments.
05 population variation and selection
This document discusses population variation and selection. It provides an overview of key concepts:
1. Natural selection acts on individuals but only populations evolve over generations as allele frequencies change. This was shown using a population of finches where large-beaked birds survived a drought better.
2. Three mechanisms can cause changes in allele frequencies in a population: natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow. Natural selection is the only mechanism that causes adaptive evolution.
3. Genetic variation within populations is required for evolution. Variation comes from new mutations and recombination during sexual reproduction. The Hardy-Weinberg principle describes populations where allele frequencies remain constant without evolutionary influences.
Genetics Chapter 24:Conservation Genetics
Conservation genetics applies genetic methods to preserve biodiversity and avoid species extinction. It studies levels of genetic diversity within and among populations and species. Small, isolated populations are vulnerable to loss of diversity through genetic drift, inbreeding, and reduced gene flow. Ex situ conservation involves captive breeding programs and gene banks, while in situ conservation preserves species in their natural habitats through parks and reserves. Population augmentation also aims to boost small populations but risks outbreeding depression if not done carefully. Conservation genetics uses an interdisciplinary approach to understand and preserve genetic diversity in threatened species.
Species diversity
1. Species diversity refers to the number and variety of species in a given region. It takes into account both the number of species and how evenly abundant they are.
2. There are three main types of species: endemic, exotic, and cosmopolitan. Endemic species are restricted to a particular area while exotic species have been transported by humans.
3. Factors that affect species diversity include speciation, extinction, migration, habitat destruction, and the introduction of invasive species. Speciation occurs through geographic isolation or reductions in gene flow. Extinction can be caused by overharvesting, pollution, and habitat loss.
Population ecologyy
Population ecology is the study of how population numbers change over time and the factors influencing those changes. Key factors influencing population growth include birth and death rates, carrying capacity, and density dependence. Exponential growth leads to rapid increases at low densities while logistic growth levels off as density approaches the environment's carrying capacity due to competition for limited resources. Population regulation involves both density-dependent factors like competition, disease, and predation as well as density-independent environmental factors.
Conservation of Genetic Resources
This document discusses genetic resource conservation. It describes ex situ conservation methods like seed banks, in vitro storage, cryopreservation, and botanical gardens. Seed banks are the most widely used method, storing seeds at low moisture and sub-zero temperatures to preserve them for decades. In vitro storage maintains plant explants in sterile culture but risks somaclonal variation. Cryopreservation freezes plant materials in liquid nitrogen and may allow indefinite storage. Field gene banks and botanical gardens conserve small numbers of species. In situ conservation maintains genetic variation on site through protected areas, on-farms, and home gardens. The document emphasizes an integrated approach using complementary ex situ and in situ methods.
Patterns of biodiveristy
1. There are various patterns of distribution for different species based on factors like habitat, geography, and climate. No two species have an identical distribution.
2. The causes of distribution patterns vary depending on the taxonomic level from broad families to specific genera.
3. Distribution patterns also vary depending on the spatial scale examined from global to local levels. Key factors that influence patterns include geological history, climate, food and habitat availability, competition, and human activities.
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مشروووووع الوراثه
This document discusses several key concepts in population genetics:
1) Genetic variation is important for adaptation, environmental change, conservation, and divergence of populations. Variation allows populations to survive over time while lack of variation leads to extinction.
2) Population genetics studies genetic structure, allele frequencies, and how they change over time due to evolutionary processes like mutation, genetic drift, natural selection, and gene flow.
3) The Hardy-Weinberg principle describes how allele and genotype frequencies remain stable without these evolutionary forces acting on a population.
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- Hardy-Weinberg principle, which states that gene frequencies in a population will remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of evolutionary influences
- How Hardy and Weinberg used Punnett squares and equations to mathematically prove the principle based on observations of dominant and recessive alleles in a population
- An example application of using the Hardy-Weinberg equation to determine the number of heterozygotes and homozygous individuals for a dominant trait in a population
Population genetic ppt
This document discusses key concepts in population genetics. It begins by defining population genetics as the study of allele frequency changes within a population over time. The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that allele frequencies remain constant between generations under certain conditions. Five evolutionary forces can change frequencies: mutation, migration, genetic drift, nonrandom mating, and natural selection. Natural selection acts to increase the frequency of traits that increase survival and reproduction. There are three types of natural selection: stabilizing selection eliminates extreme traits, disruptive selection eliminates intermediate traits, and directional selection eliminates a single trait. Polymorphisms within species, like shell color in grove snails, demonstrate genetic variation.
What is evolution
1) The document discusses factors that can initiate microevolutionary changes by altering gene frequencies in populations. These include mutation, gene flow, natural selection, non-random mating, and genetic drift.
2) Five conditions must be met for a population to maintain Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium: no mutation, random mating, no natural selection, large population size, and no gene flow. Deviations from any of these conditions can lead to evolutionary changes by changing allele and genotype frequencies over time.
3) Specific factors that can drive evolutionary changes include mutation, which introduces new variants; gene flow through migration; natural selection favoring certain genotypes; non-random mating patterns; and genetic drift through random processes in small populations
Evolution
This document provides information about evolution including:
- Natural selection causes evolution by favoring traits that increase survival and reproduction.
- Domestic plants like cabbage, broccoli and kale evolved from a common wild ancestor through artificial selection on different traits.
- There is direct evidence for evolution from observations of antibiotic resistant bacteria and other examples of adaptive evolution.
- Classification systems reflect evolutionary relationships as organisms with shared ancestry have similar characteristics.
- Homologous structures and vestigial traits provide evidence that organisms share a common ancestor.
- Transition fossils provide evidence of gradual evolution from one form to another over generations.
Evolution with phylogeny
This document discusses key concepts in biological evolution and taxonomy. It defines natural theology as the study of nature to understand the creator's plan. It describes the work of Carolus Linnaeus in establishing taxonomy and Jean Baptiste Lamarck's comparison of current and fossil species. The document then covers Darwin and Wallace's theory of descent with modification through natural selection and genetic inheritance. It discusses populations, species, and mechanisms of evolution like genetic drift, mutation, gene flow and natural selection. Finally, it summarizes population genetics, speciation, phylogeny, cladistics, and allopatric versus sympatric speciation.
Evolution
The document discusses key concepts related to evolution and the origin of life. It defines species, adaptation, mutation, common descent, and other core evolutionary ideas. It also outlines several important scientists who contributed to the theory of evolution, such as Charles Darwin, Gregor Mendel, and Thomas Malthus. Finally, it discusses modern genetics concepts like DNA, genes, alleles, and how genetic variation arises within populations.
3047 e2
The document defines a gene pool as the collection of all genes in a population. It discusses how a large gene pool indicates greater genetic diversity and robustness, while a small pool risks reduced fitness and extinction. The document also describes gene pools in crop breeding, noting primary and secondary gene pools, and gives gene pool centres as areas where important crops originated.
Evolution (Quiz Slides )
This document contains a chapter reading quiz on genetics and evolution concepts. It includes questions about gene pools, Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, genetic drift, natural selection, and microevolution. It also provides explanations of key terms like the modern synthesis, genetic variation, and relative fitness. Sample problems are worked through applying the Hardy-Weinberg equation to calculate allele and genotype frequencies in populations.
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All about wildlife, if you are fond of animals and wildlife then do follow us for more content like this
Evolving Lifecycles with High Resolution Site Characterization (HRSC) and 3-D...
The incorporation of a 3DCSM and completion of HRSC provided a tool for enhanced, data-driven, decisions to support a change in remediation closure strategies. Currently, an approved pilot study has been obtained to shut-down the remediation systems (ISCO, P&T) and conduct a hydraulic study under non-pumping conditions. A separate micro-biological bench scale treatability study was competed that yielded positive results for an emerging innovative technology. As a result, a field pilot study has commenced with results expected in nine-twelve months. With the results of the hydraulic study, field pilot studies and an updated risk assessment leading site monitoring optimization cost lifecycle savings upwards of $15MM towards an alternatively evolved best available technology remediation closure strategy.
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学校原件一模一样【微信：741003700 】《(Newcastle毕业证书)纽卡斯尔大学毕业证》【微信：741003700 】学位证，留信认证（真实可查，永久存档）原件一模一样纸张工艺/offer、雅思、外壳等材料/诚信可靠,可直接看成品样本，帮您解决无法毕业带来的各种难题！外壳，原版制作，诚信可靠，可直接看成品样本。行业标杆！精益求精，诚心合作，真诚制作！多年品质 ,按需精细制作，24小时接单,全套进口原装设备。十五年致力于帮助留学生解决难题，包您满意。
本公司拥有海外各大学样板无数，能完美还原。
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留信网认证的作用:
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2:同时对留学生所学专业登记给予评定
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二.真实使馆公证(即留学回国人员证明,不成功不收费)
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3:国家专业人才认证中心颁发入库证书
4:这个认证书并且可以归档倒地方
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The popularity of functional foods among scientists and common people has been increasing day by day. Awareness and modernization make the consumer think better regarding food and nutrition. Now a day’s individual knows very well about the relation between food consumption and disease prevalence. Humans have a diversity of microbes in the gut that together form the gut microflora. Probiotics are the health-promoting live microbial cells improve host health through gut and brain connection and fighting against harmful bacteria. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus are the two bacterial genera which are considered to be probiotic. These good bacteria are facing challenges of viability. There are so many factors such as sensitivity to heat, pH, acidity, osmotic effect, mechanical shear, chemical components, freezing and storage time as well which affects the viability of probiotics in the dairy food matrix as well as in the gut. Multiple efforts have been done in the past and ongoing in present for these beneficial microbial population stability until their destination in the gut. One of a useful technique known as microencapsulation makes the probiotic effective in the diversified conditions and maintain these microbe’s community to the optimum level for achieving targeted benefits. Dairy products are found to be an ideal vehicle for probiotic incorporation. It has been seen that the encapsulated microbial cells show higher viability than the free cells in different processing and storage conditions as well as against bile salts in the gut. They make the food functional when incorporated, without affecting the product sensory characteristics.
Enhanced action and stakeholder engagement for sustainable peatland management
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Increasing urbanization, rural–urban migration, rising standards of living, and rapid development associated with population growth have resulted in increased solid waste generation by industrial, domestic and other activities in Nairobi City. It has been noted in other contexts too that increasing population, changing consumption patterns, economic development, changing income, urbanization and industrialization all contribute to the increased generation of waste.
With the increasing urban population in Kenya, which is estimated to be growing at a rate higher than that of the country’s general population, waste generation and management is already a major challenge. The industrialization and urbanization process in the country, dominated by one major city – Nairobi, which has around four times the population of the next largest urban centre (Mombasa) – has witnessed an exponential increase in the generation of solid waste. It is projected that by 2030, about 50 per cent of the Kenyan population will be urban.
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A healthy, safe, secure and sustainable solid waste management system fit for a world – class city.
Improve and protect the public health of Nairobi residents and visitors.
Ecological health, diversity and productivity and maximize resource recovery through the participatory approach.
Goals:
Build awareness and capacity for source separation as essential components of sustainable waste management.
Build new environmentally sound infrastructure and systems for safe disposal of residual waste and replacing current dumpsites which should be commissioned.
Current solid waste management situation:
The status.
Solid waste generation rate is at 2240 tones / day
collection efficiently is at about 50%.
Actors i.e. city authorities, CBO’s , private firms and self-disposal
Current SWM Situation in Nairobi City:
Solid waste generation – collection – dumping
Good Practices:
• Separation – recycling – marketing.
• Open dumpsite dandora dump site through public education on source separation of waste, of which the situation can be reversed.
• Nairobi is one of the C40 cities in this respect , various actors in the solid waste management space have adopted a variety of technologies to reduce short lived climate pollutants including source separation , recycling , marketing of the recycled products.
• Through the network, it should expect to benefit from expertise of the different actors in the network in terms of applicable technologies and practices in reducing the short-lived climate pollutants.
Good practices:
Despite the dismal collection of solid waste in Nairobi city, there are practices and activities of informal actors (CBOs, CBO-SACCOs and yard shop operators) and other formal industrial actors on solid waste collection, recycling and waste reduction.
Practices and activities of these actor groups are viewed as innovations with the potential to change the way solid waste is handled.
CHALLENGES:
• Resource Allocation.
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The results of the MetaArray™ analysis’ support vector machine (SVM) identified groundwater monitoring wells with a 80% confidence that were characterized as either Limited for Reductive Decholorination or had a High Reductive Reduction Dechlorination potential. The results of MetaArray™ will be used to further optimize the site’s post remediation monitoring program for monitored natural attenuation.
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Ecology and evolution
- 2. DOCUMENTAL: “HOME” TALLER - Parejas 1. Explique una de las problemáticas ambientales mencionadas en el documental, plantee una posible solución sostenible 2. Mencione un ejemplo de desarrollo sostenible que se exponen al final del documental 3. ¿Qué datos estadísticos se describen en el documental? (mínimo 2)
- 3. Adaptations of living beings to the abiotic environment: EVOLUTION & ECOLOGY
- 6. Clines consist of ecotypes or forms of species that exhibit gradual phenotypic and/or genetic differences over a geographical area, typically as a result of environmental heterogeneity. Genetically, clines result from the change of allele frequencies within the gene pool of the group of taxa in question. ECOCLINES
- 7. PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY A single genotype that express different phenotypes GENOTYPE INTERACTION WITH THE ENVIRONMENT. STANDARD REACTION
- 9. TYPES OF NATURAL SELECTION
- 12. Directional selection Longer horns were advantageous for defending young calves from attacks by predators,
- 13. NATURAL SELECTION IS NOT SEXUAL OR ARTIFIAL SELECTION ARTIFICIAL SELECTIONSEXUAL SELECTION
- 14. Definition of species Biologist: “populations of organisms that have a high level of genetic similarity.” Typological species: “A group of organisms in which individuals are members of the species if they sufficiently conform to certain fixed properties.” Evolutionary species: “A single evolutionary lineage of organisms within which genes can be shared, and that maintains its integrity with respect to other lineages through both time and space.”
- 15. Ecological species: “A set of organisms adapted to a particular set of resources, called a niche, in the environment.” Reproductive species: “Two organisms that are able to reproduce naturally to produce fertile offspring of both sexes.” Genetic species: “Based on similarity of DNA of individuals or populations. Techniques to compare similarity of DNA include DNA-DNA hybridization, and genetic fingerprinting (or DNA barcoding).”
- 16. Evolutionarily significant unit (ESU) “An evolutionarily significant unit is a population of organisms that is considered distinct for purposes of conservation. Often referred to as a species or a wildlife species, an ESU also has several possible definitions, which coincide with definitions of species.”
- 17. • Adaptation • Exaptation Structure that appears to play a role but then another Structure that appears in response to a challenge
- 20. PARAPATRIC SPECIATION Different flowering periods decreased gene flow between metals tolerant and non-tolerant.
- 22. • Prezygotic (ecological isolation, ethological or mechanical) REPRODUCTIVE BARRIERS
- 23. • Postzygotic (viability of individuals produced) - HYBRID REPRODUCTIVE BARRIERS
- 24. QUIZ • Una definición de especie en términos ecológicos es un set de organismos adaptados a un mismo tipo de recurso llamado nicho en el ambiente. FALSO Ó VERDADERO
- 25. • Reproductive crossing between two different species gives rise to viable individuals may be fertile or infertile. HIBRIDATION
- 26. HIBRIDATION Citrus x tangerina Citrus reticulata
- 27. GENETIC DRIFT • STOCHASTIC changes in allelic frequency from one generation to another. • Effect > in small populations • Bottleneck is not genetic drift. Bottleneck acelerates genetic drift
- 33. Change in allelic frequencies by RANDOM resulting gamete sampling from generation to generation in a finite population GENETIC DRIFT
- 34. N determines the change rate by gene drift
- 35. GENETIC DRIFT CAUSE LOSS OF CHANGE Drift operates with variability, but leads to loss (freq = 0) or attachment (freq = 1) of an allele. FIXATION LOSS
- 36. INBREEDING Decreases genetic variability in populations
- 38. MUTATION Types of mutations • Point mutations • Indels • Duplications • chromosomal mutations - aneuploidy - polyploidy - inversions - translocations
- 41. Translocations
- 42. Aneuploidy
- 43. Poliploidy
- 44. Pachytene in PROPHASE I CROSSING OVER (MEIOSIS) RECOMBINATION
- 45. FOUNDER EFFECT
- 46. HOW TO CALCULATE FREQUENCIES? Observed Genotypic frequency (based on observed individuals) p2 = Nº AA / total population 2pq = Nº Aa / total population q2 = Nº aa / total population Allelic frequency (based on observed individuals) p = (Nº AA + ½(Nº Aa)) / total population q = (Nº aa + ½(Nº Aa)) / total population
- 47. HOW TO CALCULATE FREQUENCIES? Allelic frequency (based on observed genotypic frequencies) p = p2 + ½(2pq) q = q2 + ½(2pq) Expected Genotypic frequency (based on allelic frequencies) p2 = pxp 2pq = 2xpxq q2 = qxq
- 48. HOW TO CALCULATE FREQUENCIES? Phenotypic frequency (based on genotypic frequencies) Yellow (AA + Aa) = p2 + 2pq Green (aa) = q2
- 49. QUIZ • Fuerza evolutiva que aumenta la diversidad genética en una población A. Mutación B. Deriva genética C. Apareamiento asociativo D. Selección direccional
- 51. IN A SINGLE POPULATION