The document provides an overview of various aircraft instruments, including electronic and gyro instruments, detailing their functions, operational principles, and common errors. It explains concepts such as the pitot-static system, gyroscopic principles, and compass errors, emphasizing the importance of these instruments for flight safety. Key aspects include the operation and interpretation of airspeed indicators, altimeters, vertical speed indicators, and compasses in aviation.

1. Aircraft Instruments
5.1 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEM
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2. AIRSPEED ATTITUDE ALTIMETER
CLOCK
TURN AND BANK HEADING VERTICAL SPEED
COMPAS

3. Pitot – Static System

4. Airspeed Indicator Symbology
• White Arc – Flap
operating Range
• Green Arc – Normal
Operations
• Yellow Arc – Caution
Area (Only use in
smooth air)
• Red Line – Never Exceed
Speed

5. Airspeed Indicator
• Uses ram air from the pitot tube as well as static air.
• Ram air pushes against a diaphragm inside the airspeed
indicator, which will then be able to expand or contract
accordingly. This movement of the diaphragm is then translated
into needle movement.

6. Altimeter

7. Altimeter
• Static Input Only
• Manufacturer seals the
aneroid wafer(s) at a
specific pressure. As the
static pressure fills in the
area around these sealed
wafers, they will be able
to contract or expand
accordingly

8. Altimeter Operation
Air moves out
9 0 1
8 2
7 3
6 5 4
Wafers expand
9 0 1
8 2
7 3
6 5 4
Air moves in
9 0 1
8 2
7 3
6 5 4
Wafers contract

9. High to Low, Look out Below!

10. Vertical Speed Indicator
• Rate of climb and descent
• Trend will show immediate indication of an increase in
the airplanes rate of climb or descent
• Rate shows a stabilized change in altitude

11. Vertical Speed Indicator
• Static air enters both the
diaphragm and the area
around it. However, the air in
the diaphragm is constantly
updated while the air outside
of it is very slowly allowed to
escape through a calibrated
leak. The instrument
measures the difference in
these two pressures (the air
where you where v. where
you are)

12. Pitot – Static Summary
• While the Altimeter, VSI and airspeed indicator all
use Static air, only the airspeed indicator uses Pitot
• If you notice all of your pitot static instruments are
giving conflicting information, try turning using the
alternate air source
• If only your airspeed indicator is not working
properly, try turning on pitot heat

13. Gyro Instruments

14. Gyroscopic Principles
• Rigidity in Space
– A wheel with a heavily
weighted rim spun rapidly
tends to remain fixed in the
plane in which it is spinning
– The wheel is mounted on a set
of gimbals so that the gyro is
able to rotate freely in any
plane
– As the gimbals’ base tilts and
twists, the gyro remains
spinning in its original plane
– Allows a gyroscope to measure
changes in the attitude or
direction of an airplane

15. Precession
• What is precession?
– When an outside force tries to
tilt a spinning gryo, the gyro
responds as if the force had
been applied at a point 90
degrees in the direction of
rotation
• Precession side – effects?
– Friction in gimbals and
bearings may cause a slow
drifting in the heading indicator
and occasional small errors in
the attitude indicator

16. Vacuum Instruments

17. Attitude Indicator
• Only instrument that gives
immediate and direct
indication of the airplane’s
pitch and bank attitude.
• Operation
– Gyro spins in the horizontal
plane, mounted on dual
gimbals that allow it to remain
in the plane regardless of
aircraft movement.
– Pendulous vanes allow the
attitude indicator erect itself
on taxi

18. Heading Indicator
• What does it do?
– Senses rotation about the
aircraft’s vertical axis.
• Errors?
– Precession can cause
heading to drift, so
remember to re – check
about every 15 min.

19. Turn Indicators
• Turn Coordinator:
– Rate and Roll
• Slip and Skid
– Rate ONLY – older aircraft
• What is the inclinometer?
– Slip? Rate of turn is too slow
for the angle of bank, ball
moves inside
– Skid? Rate of turn is too great
for the angle of bank.
• Standard Turn?

20. Gyro Instruments Summary
• The gyroscopic instruments incorporate two
concepts, Rigidity in Space and precession
• The turn coordinator is powered by the
electrical system rather than the vacuum
system so that in case of a failure, the pilot
will always have a way to reference flight
attitude.

21. Compass
• Bar Magnet aligns itself
with the magnetic field

22. Compass Errors
• Variation: Difference between the true and
magnetic poles. Use correction indicated on
sectional

23. Compass Errors
• Deviation: Compass error due to disturbances
in magnetic field de to metals and electrical
accessories in the airplane. Use deviation card
in airplane to correct.

24. Compass Errors
• Magnetic Dip: Bar magnet contained in
compass is pulled by the earth’s magnetic
field, it tends to point north and somewhat
downward. Greatest near the poles

25. Compass Errors
• Acceleration Error: Occurs when accelerating
or decelerating on an easterly or westerly
heading. As you accelerate, inertia causes the
compass weight on the south end of magnetic
to lag and turn the compass toward north. As
you decelerate, inertia causes weight to move
ahead, moves the compass toward a southerly
heading.

26. Compass Errors
• Turning Error: Most pronounced when turning
to or from headings of north or south.
• When you begin a turn from a heading of
north, the compass initially indicates a turn to
the opposite direction. When the turn is
established, the compass begins to turn in the
correct direction, but it lags behind the actual
heading.