B1-9 Human Factors - LTT.pdf

This document satisfies the requirements of the
“DGCA KCASR 1 Part 66 Appendix I”
and is approved for use at AU

Fundamentals
EASA Part-66
CAT B1/B2
GoS
HUMAN FACTORS
M9
M09_B12 E
Rev.-ID: 1DEC2021
Author:
For Training Purposes Only
ELTT Release: Jan. 05, 2022

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Page 3
ATA DOC
HUMAN FACTORS EASA PART-66 M09
HAM US/O-5 KrA Mar 09, 2021
M09 HUMAN FACTORS
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Page 4
01|Intro|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
The Need to take Human Factors into Account
M9.1
HAM US/O-54 KuK Mar 16, 2021
M9.1 GENERAL
THE NEED TO TAKE HUMAN FACTORS INTO ACCOUNT
INTRODUCTION
Air transport is considered as one of the safest means of travelling in the world
today, yet every now and again an accident occurs which shakes our
complacency. All too often, as we look at the cause of the accident, we will
say:
”How could such simple error have combined to cause such a
catastrophe?”
An in−depth review of the events after the fact will reveal, time and again, that
a series of human errors (known also as a chain of events) happened before
until the accident occurred. In about one accident out of ten, maintenance
errors are part of the chain of events.
If we brake the chain of events at the maintenance level, the accident will
not happen.
What you will gain from this workshop is very much related to what you are
prepared to invest into it. Be open minded − but if you disagree with anything
that is being said, feel free to speak up.
Take the time to glance through this book from time to time in the future. It may
help you to avoid mistakes and safe you from having to pay the price for them.
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Chain of event - The human error that happens
before the accident occurs
Maintenance error are part of chain of event

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HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
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Figure 1 Broken Error Chain

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Page 6
02|Definition|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
WHAT IS MAINTENANCE HUMAN FACTORS?
In the most straightforward terms, Human Factors are those conditions that
affect a human in the aviation maintenance work environment.
Often, a Human Factors class begins by asking participants to list human
factors that affect work performance. The following list is only a small sample
of the possible topics of human factors those participants might list:
Fatigue, poor communication, personal life problems, smelly fumes, loud
noises, slippery floors, snow, incomplete or incorrect documentation, poor
instructions, substance abuse, poor training, poorly designed testing for skill
and knowledge, bad lighting, unrealistic deadlines, lack of spare parts and
tools, poor tool control, boring repetitive jobs, a rush to complete jobs.
The list may be endless. Some problems are minor but can become major.
In most cases more than one of these factors contributes to a problem. During
this course we will consider most of these human factors that may contribute to
an incident or accident event.
COSTS
Not only does human error in maintenance compromise safety, it also costs
money.
One estimates that the airlines lose at least $billion per year from human error.
The industry can hardly afford such losses now, or at any time.
We must do better. Attention to human factors can help us to improve safety
and to return the airline business to profitability.
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Maintenance human factor affect human in
the aviation maintenance work environment
and affect work performance
Examples that affect work performance
Human factor improve safety and profit

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Page 7
02|Definition|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
Human Factors can be seen as Factors that affect Human Beings in all Aspects of Life
What are
Human Factors?
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Figure 2 Human Factors - Introduction

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Page 8
03|Disciplines|B12|L2
HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
DISCIPLINES OF HUMAN FACTORS
INTRODUCTION
General
Human factors is comprised of many disciplines, which is the reason human
factors has no single definition.
We can review 10 of the human factors disciplines with the chart.
Educational Psychology
Educational Psychologists study how people learn. Excellent training programs
are often the result of using applied educational psychology.
Industrial Engineering
Industrial Engineering is the study of humans at work, using a systematic
approach to understand how people work, and then to design the job and the
equipment accordingly.
Clinical Psychology
Clinical psychology deals with your psychological composure. It can address
topics like emotions, motivation, fears and such things.
Experimental Psychology
Experimental Psychology is usually conducted in laboratories to compare
differences and similarities between groups.
Anthropometry
Anthropometry is the study of factors such as size, strength, reach and other
dimensions that can be quantified to match the machine to the human.
Example: An original coca−cola bottle, for example, was designed to fit the
average human hand, thus making it easy to hold the bottle and drink a lot of
the product.
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Page 9
HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
Clinical Psychology
Experimental
Psychology
Anthropometry
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Figure 3 Disciplines of Human Factors Pt 1

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Page 10
HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
Computer Science
Computer scientists study the graphical user interface to be sure that humans
can easily operate software. Therefore, Computer Science remains an
excellent example of human factors.
Cognitive Science
Cognitive Science studies how humans think, how they solve problems and the
ways in which they process information. This knowledge can be critical to
design of equipment, software, and documentation.
Safety Engineering
Safety Engineering applies to worker safety, with respect to topics like safety
equipment, labelling, rules, and such things.
Medical Science
Medical Science applies to topics such as vision, hearing, balance, and overall
health issues.
Organizational Psychology
Organizational Psychology looks at how people work within various size
groups. Organizational Psychologists have made excellent contributions to the
field of Crew Resource Management, which is mandatory training for flight
crews, and important to maintenance crews.
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Mental Activities

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HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
Clinical Psychology
Experimental
Psychology
Anthropometry
Computer Science
Cognitive Science
Safety Engineerig
Medical Science
Organizational Psychology
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Figure 4 Disciplines of Human Factors Pt 2

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Page 12
04|Shell|A|B12|L2|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
SHELL - MODEL
GENERAL
The SHEL(L) model was created by Professor Edwards in the early 1970’s.
The original purpose was to teach flight crews about Crew Resource
Management (CRM). However, the model also helps us to understand
maintenance environments. The SHELL model is comprised of the following
parts:
S S for Software;
S H for hardware;
S E for Environment;
S L(L) and there are two Ls for Life ware.
EXPLANATION
S S, the first letter in the Shell Model, applies to Software. Software with
regard to SHELL is not necessarily computer software. It refers to such
things as the rules and procedures of operation, technical manuals, and
information to support system operation.
S The H is the Hardware, which are quite clearly the tools, hangars, aircraft,
buildings and other such physical things.
S E represents the Environment, which is actually two distinctly different
environments:
− the physical work environment, including factors like temperature,
lighting or humidity and
− the political and social environment. That includes abstract factors like
corporate communications or company profitability.
S The L in Shell stands for Life ware, and uses 2 Ls.
− The first L represents the individual human characteristics like
knowledge, skills, experience, attitude and culture.
− The second L refers to the human in groups, including such factors as
teamwork, communication, group norms and leadership.
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The purpose of SHELL model -
Crew Resource Management (CRM) for flight crew and
Maintenance crew
S = Software and Maintenance applications,
procedures, rules,technical manuals and
operations
H = Hardware anything physical like
tools,equipment, hanger, aircraft, building,
etc
E = Environment
1) Physical Work Environment :
Temp, lighting and humidity
2) Political and Social Environment:
Communications and Company profitability
L = Life ware
1st L - Individual Human:
Knowledge, Skills, Experience, Attitude and Culture
2nd L - Human in Groups:
Teamwork, Communication, Group norms and Leadership
Group norms is interaction, procedure,
achievement, collaborating effectively, work
efficiently, behavior, respect different culture

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Page 13
04|Shell|A|B12|L2|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
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Figure 5 SHEL(L) Model

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Page 14
05|Statistics|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
Incidents attributable to Human Factors/Human Error
M9.1
INCIDENTS ATTRIBUTABLE TO HUMAN FACTORS / HUMAN ERRORS
STATISTICS
INTRODUCTION
Statistics tell a story, often showing the relative safety of a system or airplane.
Most airline safety statistics demonstrate that the system is extremely safe
(see also https://www.iata.org/ annual airline safety report).
A further example of the increasing safety: Since 1970 the statistical probability
of dying in a plane crash has fallen on average from a ratio of 1 to 264.000 to 1
to 15.874.000.
The newest statistics can be found at https://de.statista.com/.
The figure illustrates that during the last century, the Human Error increased
and the machine causes decreased. Nowadays, the human factor is still high,
especially among the flight crews (between 70 and 80 percent).
The statistics can be summarized in at least three facts:
S First, airline travel is very safe.
S Second, the safety rate is not improving much.
S Third, if the safety rate remains the same while the number of departures
increases, there will be an increased number of accidents.
MAIN CAUSE FOR ACCIDENTS
The 5 primary causes of accidents are:
S flight crew,
S Aeroplane (machine causes),
S Weather,
S Sabotage and terrorism
S and other forms of human error (e.g. Errors of air traffic controllers or
maintenance errors)
So maintenance is one of the main cause for accidents.
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IATA - International Air Transport Association

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HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
100%
20%
80%
1910 today
human causes
machine causes
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Figure 6 Accident Causes

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Page 16
HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
INFLUENCE OF MAINTENANCE
MAINTENANCE INFLUENCE ON INCIDENTS AND ACCIDENTS
In the last few decades there have been many investigations about the causes
of errors in maintenance. In 1955 the motto was: ”If an aircraft part can be
installed incorrectly, someone will install it that way”, a more detailed picture
emerged as early as the late 1990s.
The causes then were the following (according to James Reason):
S Omissions 56%
S Incorrect installation 30%
S Wrong parts 8%
S and other reasons 6%
This has not changed insignificantly till today. As before, the omissions are at
the top with 40 - 60 percent, followed by incorrect installation, which varies
between 25 and 35 percent. Also, the percentage of wrong parts and other
reasons hasn’t changed much.
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Omissions - is when you neglect
something and that thing will cause
an accident

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HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
1997
Omissions (56%)
Incorrect Installation (30%)
Wrong Parts (8%)
Other (6%)
Today
Omissions (40 - 60%)
Incorrect Installation (25 - 35%)
Wrong Parts (5 - 10%)
Other (+/– % to obtain 100%)
1955
If an Aircraft Part can be
installed incorrectly, someone
will install it that Way
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Figure 7 Maintenance Influence on Incidents and Accidents

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Page 18
06|Incidents|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
HAM US/O54 KuK Mar 15, 2021
EXAMPLES OF ACCIDENTS
AMERICAN AIRLINES DC10 - CHICAGO O’HARE, 1979
For example, in 1979 in Chicago, an engine separated from a DC10 aircraft shortly
after take−off. With no altitude for recovery, the aeroplane crashed within a
kilometer of O’Hare Field.
It was found that unconventional work procedures during an engine change
contributed to a structural failure that caused this engine separation.
Further, other DC−10 operators knew of this imminently dangerous condition,
but the information was not communicated with sufficient urgency to all of the
industry.
Today, with more industry reporting and faster data sharing, this type of
communication problem is less of a human factor.
CONTINENTAL EXPRESS EMB120
The Continental Express crash is a classic example of human factors error with
a fatal ending.
The aircraft was a Regional Turboprop Embraer 120.
Incomplete installation of a de−icing system caused the leading edge of the
right horizontal stabilizer to separate in flight.
The flight crew was unable to control the aircraft.
A variety of human factors contributed to this accident; however, the most
obvious was associated with poor written and verbal communication
during shift turnover.
You can read the entire report, and many others, on the FAA website at
https://www.faa.gov/
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HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
47 MISSING
SCREW FASTENERS
Continental Express EMB 120 1994
1 Kilometer
CRASH
American Airlines
DC 10
CHICAGO O’Hare
1979
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Figure 8 Accidents American Airlines Continental Express

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Page 20
HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
EASTER AIRLINES L1011 - MIAMI 1981
Another example, from the early eighties, is an incident at the former Eastern
Airlines. A Lockheed L1011 with 3 engines, departed Miami with 175 people on
board, bound for Nassau, Bahamas. It was meant to be a very short hop on
this tourist flight.
About 15 minutes after take−off on descent to Nassau, the pilot experienced
low oil pressure and high oil temperature on all three engines.
After two engines failed, the aircraft landed back in Miami.
The cause of the failure was missing O−Ring gaskets on the primary magnetic
chip detectors, which were changed just prior to take-off.
The NTSB said the probable cause of the accident was the omission of all the
O−ring seals on the master chip detector assemblies, leading to the loss of
lubrication, and damage to the aeroplane’s three engines as a result of the
failure of mechanics to follow the established and proper procedures for the
installation of master chip detectors in the engine lubrication system, the
repeated failure of supervisory personnel to require mechanics to comply
strictly with the prescribed installation procedures, and the failure of Eastern Air
Lines management to assess adequately the significance of similar previous
occurrences and to act effectively to institute corrective action.
Contributing to the cause of the accident was the failure of Federal Aviation
Administration maintenance inspectors to assess the significance of the
incidents involving master chip detectors and to take effective surveillance and
enforcement measures to prevent the recurrence of the incidents.
This event was not a loss−of−life disaster, just a multi−million dollar loss to
Eastern. It should not have happened!
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GENERAL
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M9.1
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Figure 9 Accident Eastern Airlines

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HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
ALOHA AIRLINES B737−200 - HAWAII, 1988
In 1988, a Boeing 737−200 operated by Aloha Airlines Inc. experienced an
explosive decompression and structural failure at 24,000 feet/ 8000 Meters,
while en route from Hilo to Honolulu, Hawaii.
Approximately 18 feet of the cabin skin and structure aft of the cabin entrance
door and above the passenger floor line separated from the aeroplane during
flight. There were 89 passengers and 6 crew members on board.
One flight attendant was swept overboard during the decompression.
The flight crew performed an emergency descent and landed at Kahului Airport
on the Island of Maui.
The safety issues discussed in the final NTSB report included:
...the quality of air carrier maintenance programs and the FAA surveillance of
those programs, and the human factors aspects of air carrier maintenance and
inspection for the continuing airworthiness of transport category aeroplanes...
The ”Human Factors” included repair procedures, training, and certification and
qualification of mechanics and inspectors.
UNITED AIRLINES DC10, SIOUX CITY, 1989
In 1989 a United Airlines DC10 had a critical engine failure that disabled the
aircraft’s flight controls. The aeroplane was enroute from Denver to Chicago,
but crash landed in Sioux City Iowa.
The flight crew performed heroically to land the aeroplane.
The NTSB Accident report indicated ”inadequate consideration given to human
factors limitations in the inspection and quality control procedures used by
United Airlines’ engine overhaul facility. This resulted in the failure to detect a
fatigue crack originating from a previously undetected metallurgical defect in
the #1 fan disk.
The separation, fragmentation, and forceful discharge of uncontained stage 1
fan rotor assembly parts led to the loss of the three hydraulic systems that
powered the aeroplane’s flight controls.
’This accident led to increased human factors attention to the processes and
procedures associated with inspection of turbine engine rotating components.’
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Corrosion Prevention and
Control Programs

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HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
United Airlines DC 10 1989
SIOUX CITY
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Figure 10 Accident Aloha Airlines

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Page 24
HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
NORTHWEST AIRLINES B747−200 - NARITA, 1994
In 1994, Northwest Airlines experienced a serious ”engine drag” upon landing
at Narita, Japan. The aeroplane was landing on an intermediate stop from
Hong Kong to New York JFK Airport.
The aeroplane stopped on a taxiway at Narita with the front of the No. 1 engine
touching the ground. The lower forward engine nose cowl had been ground
away as it dragged along the runway. Local fire fighters rapidly extinguished a
fire near the No. 1 engine.
The reason that the engine fell from the aeroplane was that an aft fuse pin was
installed, about 30 days prior, without its proper locking devices.
The event investigation discovered that the locking device was found, in a
small cloth bag, back in the US facility where the heavy maintenance check
was performed.
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HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
No. 1 Engine touching the Ground.
Lower fwd Engine Nose Cowl grounded away
Fire near the No. 1 Engine
NARITA
Hong Kong
Tokyo
New York
Northwest Airlines B747 1994
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Figure 11 Accident Northwest Airlines

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Page 26
HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
VALU-JET DC9 - FLORIDA, 1995
This accident involved a cargo fire. The fuel for the fire was old aircraft tires
and aircraft passenger oxygen generation canisters.
The aeroplane was a DC−9 enroute from Miami to Atlanta. The long list of
human factors that contributed to this accident included the following:
Insufficient training of mechanics and of cargo handlers;
S failure to follow procedures;
S failure to secure and label hazardous cargo;
S and insufficient regulatory oversight.
In this example there were many errors by workers, their company, and the
regulators. You can read the entire report, and many others, on the FAA
website at http://www.hfskyway.faa.gov
VALU-JET DC9 - ATLANTA, 1995
In 1995, a ValuJet DC−9 had a catastrophic turbine blade failure at the start of
take-off roll in Atlanta. As the aeroplane began its take-off roll, occupants, and
even the air traffic controllers heard a ”loud bang.”
The right engine fire warning light illuminated, the flight crew of the following air
plane reported to the ValuJet crew that the right engine was on fire, and the
take-off was rejected.
Shrapnel from the right engine penetrated the fuselage and the right engine
main fuel line, and a cabin fire erupted. The aeroplane was stopped on the
runway and evacuated. The fuselage was destroyed.
What was the cause? Human factors!
The previous operator of the aircraft failed to perform a proper inspection on a
7th stage high compressor disk. Further, they did not maintain an adequate
record keeping system or use ”process sheets” to document the step−by−step
overhaul/inspection procedures.
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HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
- Loud Bang!
- Fire Warning activated
- Take-Off aborted
- Fire in Cabin
- Engine #2 caught Fire
- Passengers were evacuated
Valu-Jet 1995
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Figure 12 Accident Valu-Jet 1995

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HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.1
FRANKFURT, GERMANY A320 2001
During maintenance, two pairs of pins inside one of the
elevator-aileron-computers (ELAC) were cross-connected. This changed the
polarity of the Captain‘s side stick and the respective control channels,
bypassing the control unit which might have sensed the error and would have
triggered a warning.
Post maintenance functional tests failed to detect because the technician used
the first officer‘s side stick. The pilot’s Before Taxiing check also failed to detect
the fault, because the flight control check was conducted from co-pilot side.
Contributing factors were: a confusing, difficult to handle documentation
resulting in a wrong wiring diagram, a deviation from the manufacturer’s
specifications by ”maintenance support”, not clearly formulated manufacturer’s
instructions, an incorrect implementation of the functional check by the second
inspector, an inadequate functioning quality assurance and deficiencies in the
”AFTER ENGINE START CHECKLIST” for the implementation of the ”FLIGHT
CONTROLS CHECK”.
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Figure 13 Incident A320 Frankfurt 2001

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Page 30
07|Murphy|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
Murphys Law
M9.1
HAM US/O-54 Kuk May 21, 2021
MURPHY’S LAW
Most mechanics and engineers know of the fictitious character named
”Murphy.”
The origin of ”Murphy” is unclear, but the name is often used as the example of
the mechanic that makes mistakes.
Interestingly enough, the regulators believe that you should know ”Murphy’s
Law” as part of human factors.
Murphy’s Law is: ”Anything that can go wrong will go wrong!.”
Thus, you should always plan for the possible errors that may result from
”Murphy’s Law.”
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Page 31
07|Murphy|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
GENERAL
EASA PART-66 M09
Murphys Law
M9.1
HAM US/O-54 Kuk May 21, 2021
If anything can go wrong,
it will
Edward Murphy, Engineer
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Figure 14 Murphy‘s Law

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Page 32
HUMAN FACTORS
HUMAN PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS
EASA PART-66 M09
Human Senses
M9.2
M9.2 HUMAN PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS
HUMAN SENSES AND THEIR LIMITATIONS
INTRODUCTION
We can take it for granted that technology does not function 100%. What does
this mean for humans?
This chapter gives you an insight into the human body and its shortcomings.
We want to concentrate here on the following three areas:
S the five human senses,
S the processing of information in the brain
S and phobias, such as claustrophobia.
You already know much about these things, but the authorities require us to
treat this subject.
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HUMAN FACTORS
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Human Senses
M9.2
Information Processing
5 Senses
Phobias
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Figure 15 Overview HPL

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Page 34
02|5 Senses|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Human Senses
M9.2
THE FIVE SENSES
IN GENERAL
The five senses are:
S touch,
S smell,
S taste,
S sight
S and hearing.
Sense of balance is often included in the senses. However, this is incorrect.
Balance is produced in the brain from signals received from the eyes, the inner
ear and forces acting on the body. These three signals must be in the right
proportions. If not, you will lose your sense of balance.
Flight simulators make use of this by simulating movement.
TASTE, SMELL AND TOUCH
Touch is when the sensors in the skin perceive temperature and pressure and
transfer the information to the brain. Sense of touch can, for example, enable
us to work with our hands and warn us of injuries.
Cells in the nose enable us to smell. Some maintenance tasks require a ”sniff
check” in order to determine a system error.
To taste something, you need the ”sensors” in the mouth and the nose. That is
why food tastes different when you have a cold.
In aircraft maintenance, this sense should not be used. At least we are not
aware of any taste tests during maintenance work!
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The five senses are:
Touch, Smell, Taste, Sight and Hearing
Sense of Balance is separate that comes
from the eyes, the inner ear and forces
acting on the body
Touch - To feel the Temp and Pressure
Smell - Maintenance tasks (Sniff Check)
Taste - Should not be used during
maintenance

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02|5 Senses|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Human Senses
M9.2
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Figure 16 5 Senses

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Page 36
03|Vision General|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Vision
M9.2
VISION
General Description
We humans are 80 percent visual beings. It is important to explain the function
of the eyes so that we can better understand sight and possible visual
impairments.
The eye has four main tasks:
S the perception of brightness,
S color,
S space and
S form and movement.
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Page 37
HUMAN FACTORS
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Vision
M9.2
Senses
Movement
Detects
Colour
Controls
Brightness
Detects Forms,
Dimensions and
Space
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Figure 17 Eye - Main Tasks

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Page 38
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Vision
M9.2
Major components of the human eye
The eye is similar to a simple camera with a shutter, a lens and a
light−sensitive background.
In the case of the eye these are called: − IRIS, − LENS and − RETINA.
If you look at the eyes from the outside, the pupil is visible in the centre as a
black circle - surrounded by the colored iris and the white leather skin (sclera).
Behind the pupil lies the lens. Together with the cornea, which arches over the
iris as a transparent membrane, the lens focuses the incoming light on the
retina in the back of the eye.
The shape of the eye resembles a small ball - that is why it is called eye ball.
The diameter is around 22 millimeters and thus corresponds to that of a 1 euro
coin. It is surrounded by three layers of skin: The outer layer consists of the
resistant, protective white dermis, which is replaced by the transparent cornea
in the front area of the eye. It is responsible for most of the reflection in the
eye.
The choroid lies under the dermis. The innermost membrane forms the retina
with the sensory cells and nerve cells of the eye. The retina borders the
vitreous inward. It consists of a gelatinous substance enclosed in a thin layer
that fills the inside of the eyeball.
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Main component of the Eye:
1- Iris
2- Lens
3- Retina

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HUMAN FACTORS
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Vision
M9.2
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Figure 18 Major Components of the Human Eye

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Page 40
04|OpticNerve|B12|L2|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Vision
M9.2
The blind spot
The blind spot refers to the point in the eye where the optic nerve meets the
retina. Since there are no light-sensitive receptors at the exit point of the optic
nerve, the eye is actually blind at this point. It actually represents a point of
absolute blindness, which, however, has no effect on the field of vision in
everyday life. The human eye is able to supplement the missing information of
the stimulus. To do this, it uses the information from the other eye and
supplements the field of vision with probable information.
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Vision
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Figure 19 Blind Spot: Test

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Page 42
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Vision
M9.2
The optic nerve
Light passes through the cornea, the pupil and the lens onto the retina,
stimulating light−sensitive cells.
This stimulation produces small electrical impulses that are transmitted to the
brain via the optic nerve. In the cranial cavity, the optic nerves of the two eyes
unite to form an optic nerve junction (chiasma opticum). This means that after
the crossing, the fibers from the left halves of the retina go into the left
hemisphere, and the fibers from the right hemisphere into the right hemisphere.
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Vision
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Figure 20 The Optic Nerve

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05|Vision Tasks|B12|L2
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Vision
M9.2
Visual activities
The eye adapts constantly to changing visual tasks. These include
S ADAPTATION − controlling the incidence of light;
S ACCOMMODATION − focusing;
S and FIXATION − locating direction.
All three activities are physiologically dependent on each other and are
controlled by six muscles.
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The Eye adapts constantly to
changing visual tasks:
1- Adaption - Light
2- Accommodation - Focus
3- Fixation - Direction

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HUMAN FACTORS
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Vision
M9.2
Adaption Accomodation Fixation
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Figure 21 Visual Activities
LIGHT FOCUS DIRECTION

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HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Vision
M9.2
Adaptation
Adaptation describes the ability of the eye to adapt to different lighting
conditions. The pupil, the sensory cells and a visual pigment are involved in
this. The adaptation to bright light takes a few seconds, the adaptation to
darkness takes up to 60 minutes.
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- Adaption to bright light takes few seconds
- Adaption to darkness takes 60 min

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Vision
M9.2
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Figure 22 Adaptation of the Eye - Daylight and at Night

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HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Vision
M9.2
Accommodation
The accommodation of the eye enables clear vision from far away and close
up. The ability to accommodate decreases with age.
It is the eye’s natural ability to adjust the refractive power of the lens in order to
focus on things at different distances. The lens is elastic, which means that the
strength of its curvature and thus also its refractive power can be changed. The
eye can switch between near vision and far vision within a very short time. The
near point describes the shortest and the far point the farthest distance in
which sharp vision is possible. Near point and far point are different from
person to person and can change during life.
Fixation
The fixation allows people to look at an object or subject in the outer space and
is enabled by the retinal point of the highest resolution. This so-called fovea
centralis stands for the main direction of vision. Fixation disorders occur, for
example, when squinting.
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Vision
M9.2
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Figure 23 Accommodation Visual Near Point

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06|Vision Impairments|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Vision
M9.2
IMPAIRMENTS TO VISUAL PERFORMANCE
Introduction
Airlines and airport authorities often have their own guidelines governing the
driving of vehicles or the taxiing and towing of aircraft on the apron. A regular
medical examination of the eyesight is essential for all employees
Each individual should be made aware of possible impairments to sight and
their risks, including the three main parts: environmental influences,
substances like drugs and medication and medical factors. The last one
includes nearsightedness (myopia) as well as farsightedness (hyperopia) and
presbyopia.
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There is no regulations from EASA for visual
ability of maintenance personal
Near / Short Sight - Myopia
Far / Long Sight - Hyperopia
Close up - Presbyopia after age of 40
Blurry vission - Astigmatism
Cloudy vission - Cataracts
Eye disease that cause blindness - Glaucoma

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Page 51
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Vision
M9.2
Dazzling or Glare
Environmental Physical/Medical
Poor Lighting
Clarity of the Air
(e.g. Fog / Mist)
Myopia
Glaucoma
Presbyopia
Astigmatism
Cataracts
Hyperopia
Substances
Alcohol
Cigarettes
(Nicotine)
Medication
Illegal Drugs
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Figure 24 Limitations of Eye Vision

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HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Vision
M9.2
Environmental influences
Environmental influences as for example amount of light, clarity of the air, fog,
mist or dazzling, also affect the power of vision.
Older people are often more affected by dazzling than younger ones.
We adapt to brightness very quickly; fully adapting to darkness can take up to
30 minutes.
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HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Vision
M9.2
Dazzling or Glare
Environmental
Poor Lighting
Clarity of the Air
(e.g. Fog / Mist)
And many more . . .
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Figure 25 Example of Environmental Influences on Vision

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HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Vision
M9.2
Substances taken into the body
Medicine, alcohol, nicotine or drugs may reduce the supply of blood and
oxygen to the eyes.
Many drugs and medications cause changes in the pupil. Known as the dilated
drug pupil, the enlarged pupil allows more light to shine on the retina, even if
this is not necessary due to the given lighting conditions and can thus trigger
faster degeneration and aging of the retina. The consequences are weaker
eyesight and retinal changes. In addition, long-term drug abuse also leads to
irrevocable nerve damage, including the optic nerve.
Under the influence of alcohol the function of the pupil is slowed: The pupils
contract less quickly than usual. In addition, alcohol consumption dries out the
eyes and too much alcohol consumption can cause eye tremors.
Double vision or blurred vision in a drunken state is caused by the fact that
communication between the eye muscles and the brain is disturbed.
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HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Vision
M9.2
Substances
Alcohol
Cigarettes
(Nicotine)
Medication
Illegal Drugs
And many more
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Figure 26 Influence of Medication and Drugs on Pupil

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HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Vision
M9.2
Medical/physical factors
Visual defects such as short or long−sightedness, and signs of old age, such
as cataracts and glaucoma are among the ”medical/physical factors” which can
lead to risks.
Shortsightedness, long−sightedness, curvature of the cornea and axial defects,
long−sightedness caused by the ageing process, cataracts, glaucoma, and
color blindness are visual impairments.
Most visual impairments can easily be corrected with eyeglasses.
Cataracts and glaucoma are mostly a result of ageing. Often only an operation
will prevent blindness.
Congenital color blindness can unfortunately not be cured. In the case of
red−green color blindness good lighting can improve sight.
Many of those affected are unaware of their impairment, as the brain replaces
the missing color.
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HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Vision
M9.2
Myopia
Hyperopia
− Far sightedness
− Long-sightedness
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Figure 27 Myopia and Hyperopia

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HUMAN FACTORS
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Vision
M9.2
Presbyopia
Long−sightedness caused by the ageing process begins after the age of 40.
The great danger lies in the gradual reduction in the power of sight.
With this ametropia, the elasticity of the lens decreases so much that the near
point shifts. The distance at which you can see objects moves further and
further away. This is because the eye loses the ability to accommodate. This
means that it can no longer focus on different distances and needs support for
this. Reading glasses are a possible solution, but there are also other options
for correcting presbyopia.
The cause of presbyopia lies in the lens. To be more precisely: in its loss of
elasticity. The closer an object is to the eye, the more the lens has to bulge so
that you can see it clearly. This happens when the ”suspension” of the lens
relaxes (ciliary muscles) so that the lens becomes more spherical. With
increasing age, usually from mid-40s, the lens has often hardened so much
that this process no longer functions as good as before.
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Vision
M9.2
Presbyopia
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Figure 28 Presbyopia

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Page 60
07|Hearing|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Hearing
M9.2
FRA US/O-54 KuK Mar 22, 2021
HEARING
General
The ear has two main tasks − to provide hearing and balance. Both are
important for our occupation − here we will deal mainly with hearing.
General Description
The ear is made up of the outer, middle and inner ear.
The three sections transform sound waves into nerve impulses, which the brain
recognizes as sounds. The sound waves are directed to the eardrum through
the auditory canal. The vibrations are ”mechanically” transferred to the
membrane of the cochlea, which is filled with liquid, by small bones in the ear.
The liquid oscillates, stimulating millions of tiny hairs, which in turn stimulate
the nerves.
When flying or diving you often have an unpleasant sensation in the ears. The
cavity of the middle ear is connected to the mouth and throat by the
”Eustachian tube”.
In extreme cases, if ventilation is limited or if a great change of pressure
suddenly occurs, the eardrums can burst.
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Hearing
M9.2
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Figure 29 The Human Ear

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HUMAN FACTORS
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Hearing
M9.2
Hearing range in Hz
The audio frequency is the number of times a sound wave vibrates per second.
The unit of measurement is Hertz (Hz). The higher the Hertz number, the
higher the audio frequency. A high-pitched sound is, for example, the chirping
of birds. Low tones are, for example, a distant thunder or the tones of a bass
guitar.
The hearing range of a healthy, young individual is from 20 Hz (Hertz) to
20,000 Hz. It is most sensitive at about 3,000 Hz.
The term infrasonic or low-frequency sound describes sound waves with a
frequency below the lower limit of audibility (generally 20 Hz). Humans will only
be able to perceive infrasound if the sound pressure is sufficiently high. The ear
is the primary organ for sensing low sound, but at higher intensities it is
possible to feel infrasound vibrations in various parts of the body.
In aviation industry, one can find infrasonic waves at engines. Infrasonic waves
can damage internal organs.
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Hearing
M9.2
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Figure 30 Hearing Range in Hz

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08|Hearing Sound Pr|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Hearing
M9.2
PRESSURE OF SOUND
Worldwide, noise levels are measured in decibels (dB) and in the dB scale. The
decibel scale is a logarithmic scale. A doubling of the sound pressure
corresponds to a level increase of 6 dB. The term ”dB” is not a fixed value like
volts or meters, it depends on the context.
Pressure of sound influences hearing. The auditory threshold is 0 dB(A)
(decibels). The pain threshold is at 140 dB − damage to hearing can be
expected above 150 dB (A).
In the middle ear there is a ”natural” protection mechanism, which protects the
ear temporarily from sound levels above 80 dB(A). This reflex can hold back a
maximum of 20 dB(A). If noise occurs suddenly (for example in an explosion),
the ear is completely unprotected.
Over a longer period of time a loss of hearing can result. In Germany and other
countries, ear protection, by law, must be worn at sound levels above 90
dB(A).
Not only the sound level but also the period of exposure is decisive. The limit is
reduced to 85 dB(A) if exposure is more than 4 hours.
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08|Hearing Sound Pr|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Hearing
M9.2
whispering
normal
conversation
Saw
Jet during Take-off
...TRUCK
...car passing
Forest
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Figure 31 Typical Noise Levels

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09|Hearing Impairments|B12|L2
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Hearing
M9.2
HEARING IMPAIRMENTS
General
Hearing loss is a partial or total inability to hear and it may be caused by a
number of factors, e.g. it can occur in the entire area of the hearing organs.
Depending on the location of the hearing loss, a distinction is made between
conductive hearing loss - disorders in the outer and middle ear - or
sensorineural hearing loss - inner ear hearing loss. If a conductive hearing loss
occurs in conjunction with a sensorineural hearing loss, it is referred to as a
mixed hearing loss.
Conductive hearing loss
Conductive hearing loss occurs when there is a problem transferring sound
waves anywhere along the pathway through the outer ear or middle ear.
Possible causes are: blockade, obstructions, earwax plugs, improper venting of
the middle ear, fractures of ossicles, ruptured ear drum etc.
Depending upon the severity and nature of the conductive loss, this type of
hearing impairment can often be treated succesfully.
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Hearing
M9.2
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Figure 32 Hearing Impairment: Typical Conductive Impairments

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Hearing
M9.2
Sensorineural hearing impairment
Hearing loss that occurs when there is a problem in the way the inner ear or
hearing nerve works. Usually, some of the hair cells within the cochlea are
damaged. It can be a result of aging, exposure to loud noise, injury, disease,
certain drugs or an inherited condition. It is also the most common type of
hearing loss.
The so called noise induced hearing loss is usually caused by exposure to
excessively loud sounds and cannot be medically or surgically corrected. So
better not forget to wear your ear protection!
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Hearing
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Figure 33 Hearing Impairment: Sensorineural Impairments

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10|Information
Processing|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.2
INFORMATION PROCESSING AND ITS LIMITATIONS
INFORMATION PROCESSING
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
All impressions of sense are transmitted to the brain via nerves. This simple
diagram shows you how the information is processed.
The model consists of the following modules:
S signal input and store,
S attention mechanism,
S perception module,
S decision generator,
S short−term memory,
S long−term memory,
S motor neuron programs,
S and actions with feedback.
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10|Information
HUMAN FACTORS
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M9.2
Signal and Input Storage
Attention Mechanism
Perception Module
Motor Neuron Programs
Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory
Decision Generator
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Figure 34 Information Processing

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10|Information
HUMAN FACTORS
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M9.2
SIGNAL INPUT (AND STORAGE)
The first module is the signal input and store. The impressions of sense are
received here and stored temporarily for up to 2 seconds. Images are stored
for about half a second. In this way it is possible to hear spoken words as
sentences and images as films.
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10|Information
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Signal Input
and
Storage
Tones Images
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Figure 35 Signal Input and Storage

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10|Information
HUMAN FACTORS
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M9.2
ATTENTION
If information has been received, the brain concentrates on particular elements.
This is called attention. There are four different kinds of attention:
1. divided attention,
2. focusing attention,
3. persistent attention and
4. selective attention.
The attention mechanism switches back and forth between them.
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10|Information
HUMAN FACTORS
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M9.2
Attention
Mechanism
Persistant
Attention
Selective
Attention
Divided
Attention
Focussing
Attention
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Figure 36 Four different Kinds of Attention

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10|Information
HUMAN FACTORS
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M9.2
AWARENESS
Awareness assembles information in such a way that the environment
becomes recognizable. Input data is organized, interpreted and combined into
parcels of information. Sight is a good example.
The optical nerve delivers inverse, two−dimensional data. Using a ”visual
program” which is learnt during the first few weeks of life, the correct image of
space is created.
Experience prevents correct data from being rejected and false data from being
transferred. Among other things, awareness provides us with faces, melodies
and illusions.
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10|Information
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M9.2
Perception Module
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Figure 37 Perception Module

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10|Information
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.2
DECISION GENERATOR
Up to now we have only concentrated on data and information. But what task
does the ”decision generator” have? That is what allows us to make the
decision!
Your brain combines information from the senses with your experience and
your knowledge. Perhaps you have developed several solutions, but have
decided on only one. That is what the decision generator does.
Crosscheck if corrections are necessary. That is also a part of reaching a
decision (Feedback loop).
In aviation technology you must make a decision according to the situation:
S ”fire alarm” when engine is idle: quick succession of trained hand
movements
S locating errors in a complex system: going through check items step by
step, yes/no decisions or incorporation experience and knowldege.
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M9.2
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Figure 38 Decision Generator: Two examples

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11|Attention Examples|B12|L2
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Attention
M9.2
ATTENTION
The four different kind of attention have already been mentioned: divided
attention, focusing attention, persistent attention and selective attention.
Divided attention is often found in the workplace, as performing different tasks
is constantly demanded of us.
Focusing attention, on the other hand, is concentrated on one individual
aspect. For example, you are waiting for a signal lamp to illuminate.
You need persistent attention for activities that take longer, like inspections.
Selective attention reacts to key information. If you hear your own name in the
background, the mechanism immediately switches to this conversation − a
perfect form of distraction.
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Divided attention - Workplace - Performing different tasks
Focusing attention - Individual - waiting for signal lamp to illuminate
Persistent attention - Activities that take longer - inspection
Selective attention - Key information - hearing your own name - form of distraction

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11|Attention Examples|B12|L2
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Attention
M9.2
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Figure 39 Different kind of Attention: Two Examples

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Page 82
12|Limitations|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Limitations of information processing
M9.2
LIMITATIONS OF INFORMATION PROCESSING
Introduction
Technicians know that any system can work defectively. The information
processing system of the brain can, too.
So what can lead to wrong data being processed?
S Usually, the person chose the ”wrong awareness”:
Important data does in fact reach the brain but is not recognised and
processed.
S Missing data is replaced by knowledge and experience.
S Wrong decisions result.
Usually we look for information that confirms our ’mental model’ and not for that
which questions it. If the information does not fit, it is suppressed.
Investigation reports then contain the phrase: ”... that didn’t occur to me...“
Tips
In the case of deceptive awareness, the signals are received but they are not
processed correctly. Conjuring tricks are often based on this weakness in the
system.
The following suggestions can help you to counteract illusions, forget fullness
and other memory−related limitations:
S use up−to−date manuals, make notes and use aids to make decisions when
looking for errors.
S do not just look for information that supports your way of thinking. After you
consider other opinions and do not find alternatives then you can fully
support your ideas.
S question your information and data.
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12|Limitations|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Limitations of information processing
M9.2
1
2
(a)
(a)
3
(a)
Auflösung: D
Which of the three lenghts (a) is the shortest?
Answer:
A. Arrow 1
B. Arrow 2
C. Arrow 3
D. All three are equal
Solution: D
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Figure 40 Mueller-Lyer Illusion

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Page 84
13|Memory|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Memory
M9.2
MEMORY
INTRODUCTION
Memory is imperative for repetitive actions and for learning new things. It
serves as a store, without which we could not deal with the flood of information.
Memory comes in three types:
S ultra short−term memory,
S short−term memory
S and long−term memory.
The ”decision generator” uses the short and long−term memories.
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Memory
M9.2

Decision Generator

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Figure 41 Memory

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HUMAN FACTORS
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Memory
M9.2
SHORT-TERM MEMORY
The short−term memory serves as an interim store for information. Under
normal conditions the ability to store information temporarily is sufficient. If the
load on the decision generator is great, the short−term memory is pushed to its
limits.
Is it possible to increase the capacity of the short-term memory?
Training or ”grouping information” can increase efficiency.
For example, remember the following telephone number − 0496951696.
As a row of numbers is difficult. In groups it is easier.
You can increase the capacity of the short−term memory by repeating things in
your mind or by linking the information to images or concepts.
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Memory
M9.2

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Figure 42 Short-term Memory

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HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Memory
M9.2
LONG-TERM MEMORY
Long−term memory has almost endless capacity and stores our knowledge,
personal experiences, values and social norms, abilities and processes.
The information is filed in the semantic and episodic memories.
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Memory
M9.2

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Figure 43 Long-term Memory

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HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Memory
M9.2
Semantic memory
The semantic memory stores factual knowledge such as language, rules and
formulas. The data is not tied to time or place.
Episodic memory
The episodic memory stores experiences. The corresponding circumstances
are also stored at the same time as the event.
The episodic memory is strongly influenced by personal expectations. Thus,
different people may store the same event in completely different ways.
An example of this is the often−conflicting accounts made by eyewitnesses.
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Memory
M9.2

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Figure 44 Semantic and Episodic Memory

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Memory
M9.2
Motor Neuron Program
Do you remember your first driving lesson?
Your brain had to give the following commands every time:
S first push down the clutch − then change gears − slowly let out the clutch!
− Once you perform this action many times it becomes an automatic
process. You don’t have to think about it.
The action is stored in the motor neuron program where many of your reflexes
are also stored.
The best way to recognize such motor neuron program is when you hurt
yourself, e. g. touch a hot object. You automatically withdraw your hand
quickly.
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Memory
M9.2

Decision Generator

Signal Input and Storage
Attention Mechanism
Attention Mechanism
Actions with Feedback
”Ouch”
Actions with Feedback
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Figure 45 Example of Motor Neuron Program

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Page 94
14|Phobia|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Claustrophobia and physical access
M9.2
CLAUSTROPHOBIA AND PHYSICAL ACCESS
GENERAL
A phobia is a compulsive feeling of terror of particular situations or things.
Contrary to fear, a phobia is usually without basis.
There are different types of phobia:
S fear of animals such as spiders − arachnophobia,
S fear of crowds of people − known as agoraphobia,
S fear of enclosed spaces − known as claustrophobia,
S and fear of heights − called acrophobia.
In aviation, claustrophobia and acrophobia are the most common.
CLAUSTROPHOBIA
The official definition of claustrophobia is:
S ”abnormal fear of enclosed spaces”.
It occurs in various ways. In enclosed spaces most of us feel uneasy. This is
quite normal and is a natural protective mechanism.
The dangerous thing about claustrophobia is when this uneasiness becomes
panic−stricken fear.
During such an attack the person can no longer calm himself; in other words,
self−control fails entirely.
What can be done about claustrophobia?
S The sufferer can free himself from the enclosed space BEFORE an attack.
To do this, the warning signals must be recognized and taken seriously.
S Once the panic attack has set in, colleagues must try to get the sufferer out
of the area.
In conclusion, claustrophobia is difficult to foresee.
There must be a collective attitude that it can affect everyone, not only the
victim but also the helper.
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M9.2
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Figure 46 Examples of Confined Spaces and how to deal with them

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HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.2
ACROPHOBIA
Most people suffer some degree of vertigo. Nobody can fly, which may explain
the normal respect for heights above 1.50 m.
The abnormal, panic reaction to heights is what is really dangerous.
Sudden acrophobia is less common than claustrophobia. A real sufferer could
hardly climb onto a chair without a panic attack. A vicious circle usually starts
the panic attack and keeps it alive.
During maintenance you must often work at great heights.
Safety lines and suitable platforms lessen the risk of a fall and give you a
feeling of security.
Particularly at low heights, people often thoughtlessly do without safety aids.
If the phobia sets in, two protection mechanisms are missing:
S The natural protection mechanism is missing - your body tenses up.
S Artificial protection mechanisms, for example, are safety lines.
Team attitude can lessen dangers. So expressions like ”Hey, stop putting it on”
should disappear from your vocabulary.
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M9.2
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Figure 47 Acrophobia Vicious Circle

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Page 98
HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
Intro
M9.3
M9.3 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
WORKING IN TEAMS
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL
The aircraft engineer works within a system. He introduces his knowledge,
ability and characteristics into this system and is influenced by other factors.
These factors are the direct work environment, organization or company
culture, regulations inside and outside the company and the economic and
political environment of society at large.
Every company has its own culture. This includes:
S company philosophy and policy,
S procedures,
S selection and training criteria,
S and the quality assurance system.
THE INFLUENCE OF THE ORGANIZATION
The influence that the organization exerts on the engineer can be positive or
negative. The organization can have a positive influence, if it encourages its
employees − financially or with career incentives, or if it takes notice of
problems and takes measures to solve them.
Negative influences arise if, for example, the organization exerts pressure on
the technician to operate on a tight time schedule or to work with an inadequate
budget. At some point, the individual realizes that particular factors are having
an effect on the quality of his work. What is the consequence?
Apart from latent dissatisfaction, fluctuation and absenteeism will increase.
The result is an increase in human errors.
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Influence of the organization:
Positive influence - Encourages employees financially,
career development and problem solving.
Negative influence - Consequence or behavior of the
employees
Dis-satisfaction, Fluctuation and absenteeism will increase.

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HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
Intro
M9.3
L
H
L
E
S
L
H
L
E
S
Social Psychology
Organization
Culture
Responsibilities
Motivation
Team Working
Supervision and Leadership
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Figure 48 Social Psychology - Introduction

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02|Responsibilities|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
Responsibility; Individual and Group
M9.3
RESPONSIBILITY: INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP
INTRODUCTION
”An aircraft technician carries a lot of responsibility!”
And what about the other occupations within aviation? What does ”responsible”
really mean?
Somebody must be accountable for the tasks he has been given. Someone is
considered responsible if he/she is liable to be called to account as being in
charge or control of, or answerable for something.
He takes this responsibility individually and within the group setting.
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Provides traceability and responsibility

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EASA PART-66 M09
M9.3
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Figure 49 Definition Responsibility

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HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.3
INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY
The individual is given tasks − usually from within a group − for which he takes
responsibility. A good example of this is the job card for an inspection.
In accordance with your qualifications, you carry out this job and sign it off. This
proven method guarantees ”traceability”.
S Who did what and when?
But what does the responsibility of the individual involve? We must examine
whether he is permitted and able to carry out the task.
S The ”permission” is determined by the task and the qualifications of the
individual to carry out this task. (MAY)
S The ”ability” depends on many factors, such as tools, materials, time and
many other things. (CAN)
S And to complete the list: ”willingness” also plays a role. (WILL)
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M9.3
Responsibilities
Individual
Responsibility
Group (or Team)
Responsibility
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Figure 50 Individual Responsibility

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HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.3
GROUP RESPONSIBILITY
Introduction
Group responsibility is often limited to the following formula:
”Group responsibility is the sum of all individual responsibilities.”
Unfortunately this is the wrong approach. Of course, the inspection is divided
among several job cards, and thus to individuals, but group responsibility refers
to the general goal, for example, to do the inspection within a given time.
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HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.3
Responsibilities
Individual
Responsibility
Group (or Team)
Responsibility
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Figure 51 Group Responsibility

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HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.3
Advantages and Disadvantages of group responsibility
Group responsibility has the following advantages:
1. Everybody feels responsible for the group result.
2. Safety awareness applies to the job as a whole.
3. Mutual supervision is offered and accepted.
4. Achieving the goal is regarded as a challenge.
5. Several people carry the burden of responsibility.
The disadvantages are:
1. Several people carry the burden of responsibility.
No, this is not a mistake! Almost all positive aspects of group responsibility
can also be ”killers”.
2. The burden of responsibility is blurred − Who should do what at what time?
3. Safety: with the help of others you can take greater risks.
4. Achieving the goal: it can result in unhealthy competition between teams.
5. Mutual supervision: ”Some one else can fix it − it’s time for me to take a
nap!”
The team as a whole must take on group responsibility. Team structure and
culture determine if group responsibility will succeed or not.
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HUMAN FACTORS
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EASA PART-66 M09
M9.3
S Clear designation of tasks
S Good traceability
S Everybody feels responsible
for the Group Result
S Safety Awareness applies to
the job as a whole
S Achieving the goal is regarded
as a challange
S Several people carry the
burdon of responsibility
Responsibilities
Individual
Responsibility
Group (or Team)
Responsibility
Advantages
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Figure 52 Group– and Individual Responsiblity Advantages

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Page 108
03|Teamwork|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
Teamwork
M9.3
FRA US/O-54 KuK March 31, 2021
TEAM WORKING
GENERAL
Within a society there are many groups, for example: men between 18 and 25,
women with a university degree, red−haired children ...
In aircraft maintenance there are also numerous groups:
S the group of mechanics,
S the group of electricians,
S line maintenance personnel, etc.
”Team vs. Group”
Does a ”team of mechanics” exist? What distinguishes the team from the group?
S A team consists of persons working together to achieve a common goal.
S Alternatively, a team can consist of members working in parallel to achieve
the goal.
S A team has a certain structure. It usually consists of a recognized ”leader”
and at least one ”follower”.
S The goal defines the composition of a team.
S The cohesion and functioning of the team must be maintained.
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HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
Teamwork
M9.3
GOAL
Team(s)
Electricians
Mechanics Electricians
„Line Maintenance“
Group(s)
GOAL
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Figure 53 Group vs. Team

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HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
Teamwork
M9.3
MAINTAINING A TEAM AND IMPORTANT LUBRICANTS.
What is necessary to keep a team together?
Communication
is very important, and should not be underestimated as a factor in carrying out
safe and efficient maintenance work. For this reason, a separate chapter (M9.7
Communication) will be devoted to communication.
Cooperation
is an important ”adhesive” for the team. Openness, honesty and fairness
increase cohesion and mutual respect. Members of the team must treat
disagreements with respect, and team leaders should play an active and
important role in solving them.
Coordination means:
1. Delegating: tasks must be clearly and fairly allocated according to the
abilities of the team members.
2. Checking: delegated tasks must be monitored and
3. priorities must be set: Priorities should be subject to change if difficulties or
new circumstances arise.
Mutual support
is the ”heart” of every team. It forms the basis for team identity. Every member
introduces his own strengths and weaknesses into the team. The art is to
employ everyone according to his abilities, and to compensate for his weak
points. It is a part of mutual support to point out somebody’s mistakes
realistically and constructively, and to be of assistance regarding solutions.
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Communication:
Safe and efficient maintenance work
Cooperation:
Openness, honesty and fairness
Coordination:
Delegating, checking and priorities
Mutual support:
Team identity

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Teamwork
M9.3
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Figure 54 Team Factors

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Page 112
04|Motivation|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
Motivation and Demotivation
M9.3
DIFFICULTIES IN TEAMS
MOTIVATION AND DE−MOTIVATION
INTRODUCTION
Regarding motivation, several theories are established nowadays. Back from
the 1960’s the theory of Maslow is still popular and explains what different kind
of hierarchies there are concerning our motivation.
EXAMPLE: MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Maslow postulated that two different motivation forces drive people:
S Fulfilment of basic physiological and psychological needs,
S and the realization of individual potential.
The hierarchy shows the corresponding steps. Where does the ”typical” aircraft
technician belong in this simplified structure?
The technician can achieve the lower levels by earning money and thus:
S buy food,
S finance a home
S and provide for a family.
The middle level is influenced strongly by the social environment:
S social standing,
S prestige and recognition.
As a result, most technicians do strive for the Maslow level of achieving full
individual potential.
Note: Maslow estimated that about 2% of the population will reach to top!
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HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.3
Physiological
Safety
Love/Belonging
Self-Esteem
Self-
Actualization
Basic Needs
Social Needs
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Figure 55 Maslow‘s Hierarchy of Needs

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Page 114
HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.3
MOTIVATED TEAMS
How can we recognize highly motivated people?
They perform their work on a high level and achieve very good results. They
have the energy, the enthusiasm and the determination to succeed. Whenever
problems occur, they cooperate to overcome these. They have the willingness
to accept responsibility and to accommodate change.
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HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
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M9.3
Motivated Demotivated
- High Performance and Results
- The Energy, Enthusiasm and Determination to succeed
- Instinct for Cooperation in overcoming Problems
- Willingness to accept Responsibility and to accommodate
- and to adapt to changes
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Figure 56 Motivated Teams

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SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.3
DEMOTIVATED TEAMS
Demotivated Teams have completely different characteristics:
They show an apathy and indifference to the job. Furthermore, they have a
poor time-keeping and high absent rates. When they encounter difficulties, they
tend to exaggerate the negative effects. A lack of co-operation and an
unjustified resistance to change are also typical for demotivation.
But be careful: all these symptoms also represent stress. After a prolonged
period of stress, this can also lead to demotivation.
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M9.3
Motivated Demotivated
- Apathy/Indifference to the Job
- Poor Time Keeping and high Absenteeism
- Exaggeration of the Effects/Difficulties when
encountered
- Lack of Co-Operation
- Unjustified Resistance to Change
Stress
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Figure 57 Demotivated Teams

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Page 118
05|Peer Pressure|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
Peer Pressure
M9.3
PEER PRESSURE
INTRODUCTION
Do you know the expression ”peer pressure” or group compulsion or pressure
from colleagues? This can exert a massive influence on work.
Think of the statement: ”Everybody must pull his weight − there are NO
exceptions”.
But what if they do not pull their weight or have reservations about whether or
not ”this is the right way”? This is exactly where pressure sets in.
On the one hand you want to belong. On the other hand you have reservations.
A certain level of conformity to the group is imperative. But sometimes
adaptation goes too far, and unfortunately the borderline is not always clear.
Further, pressure is not always applied openly. You perceive the pressure or
maybe you think you perceive it.
The following factors may influence the individual’s susceptibility to pressure
from others:
S the cultural environment: In some countries the individual has little value.
The community is everything.
S sex: in general, women tend to conform more than men.
S knowledge and experience: the newcomer tends to follow the majority,
above all if he feels he has too little knowledge or experience.
S self−esteem: people with low self−esteem will give in to pressure more
easily.
S relationships: Conformity is greater if the members of the group know each
other well
What if colleagues exert pressure on you to do the job ”properly” or make high
demands regarding safety? Should resist this pressure? Or is it better to
conform?
Usually the individual gives in to pressure if he hears such things as ”Stop
making a fuss.” or ”Forget the manual. This is the way we do it.”
It depends on how you should react. With regard to safety it is clear.
There must be a safety culture within the group and ”everybody must pull his
weight − there are NO exceptions.” Only in this way can peer pressure be
tolerated.
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Peer pressure - Actual or perceived
pressure from colleagues
Factors that effect peer pressure:
culture, sex, knowledge, experience,
self-esteem and relationships

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05|Peer Pressure|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
Peer Pressure
M9.3
Knowledge/
Familiarity
(Intelligence)
Self-esteem
Authori-
tarianism
Unanimity
Group Size
Independance
of Decision
Based on a Study by Forsyth (2009)
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Figure 58 Possible Factors of Peer Pressure

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Page 120
06|Culturesafety|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
Cultural Issues
M9.3
CULTURE ISSUES
GENERAL
What springs to mind when you hear the expression ”cultural issues”? Do you
think about ”the company?”.
Culture is something created by the people themselves, in contrast to nature -
not created by man. This definition also applies to cultures in companies.
Generally speaking, ”Company culture” arises from the ”life” of common values
and ideas of all company employees.
The image shows various ”cultures” of a company:
S ”safety culture”,
S ”technical culture”,
S ”business culture”,
S ”cultures within the teams and groups”
S and ”worksite cultures”.
How do the circles interact with each other? The head of the organization does
not define every culture - many ”cultures” develop independently.
However, the head of the organization is in the best position to influence all
cultures in a positive way.
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Cultural Issues
M9.3
Organisational
Culture
Business
Culture
Technical
Culture
Worksite
Culture
Group
Culture(s)
Safety
Culture
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Figure 59 Organisational Culture

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HUMAN FACTORS
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EASA PART-66 M09
Cultural Issues
M9.3
SAFETY CULTURE
General definition
What does ”safety culture” mean? In the ”ICAO Human Factors Digest No. 10”
it says:
”... safety culture is the sum of attitudes, norms, roles and social and
technical practices concerned with minimising exposure of employees,
managers, customers and members of the general public to conditions
considered dangerous or hazardous.”
In other words:
”how people behave in relation to safety and risk when no one is watching.”
(ICAO SMM Rev.4)
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HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
Cultural Issues
M9.3
Organisational
Culture
Business
Culture
Technical
Culture
Worksite
Culture
Group
Culture(s)
Safety
Culture
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Figure 60 Safety Culture

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Page 124
HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
Cultural Issues
M9.3
James Reason‘s Definition
Professor James Reason, one of the leaders in the field of human factors,
offers the following hypothesis on this:
...safety culture is the motor giving the system the goal of ”maximum
safety”, independently of persons and current economic demands...
And he pointed out some important elements and other cultures which will
affect Safety Culture both negatively and positively.
Let us start with trust and respect: An atmosphere of trust among the
stakeholders as well as respect for the skills, experience, and abilities of the
workforce and first-line supervisors is indispensable since both affect other
cultures. Without trust and respect, there is no progressive just culture and no
effective learning culture. Learning from errors is a vital element of a good
safety culture. But to learn from errors, there must be a willingness and the
competence of the organization represented by its members to draw the right
conclusions from its safety information system, and the will to implement major
reforms when their need is indicated. The best information system will not work
efficiently if the respective operative systems fails. When we think of the SHEL
model, the information and reporting system will be represented by the S
(software) and H (hardware).
The culture of an organization can be more accurately measured by deeds
rather than words. What is the use of a highly− praised safety system if it is not
implemented on the working level?
Everybody has to participate. Training and ”tools” such as information systems
must be accepted and used. It is the job of management to make these aids
available and to encourage their usage.
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HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
Cultural Issues
M9.3
Safety
Culture
Just
Culture
Reporting
Culture
Learning
Culture
Reporting
System
Information
System
Trust
Respect
Safety Culture is the Motor giving the System
the Goal of ”maximum Safety”, Independence
of Persons and current economic Demands.
Source: Rames Reason
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Figure 61 Definition Safety Culture J. Reason

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Page 126
07|Leadership|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
Management, Supervision and Leadership
M9.3
LEADERSHIP
DIFFERENT LEVELS OF LEADERSHIP
GENERAL
In large organizations, leadership is found on various levels.
The upper management lays down company policy, makes business decisions
and has usually little direct contact with the employees and their work.
The middle management serves as a link between the upper management and
the work groups or teams. They put directives into practice and are responsible
for personnel planning in their respective areas.
Team leaders or supervisors are in direct contact with the workers and their
work. Differing leadership approaches are needed in various job areas.
Work group leaders are often under pressure as they are the link between the
management and the teams.
On the one hand the company management provides them with economic
data, customer orders and procedures.
On the other hand there is feedback coming from the teams, such as reporting
off sick, unforeseen difficulties and unscheduled tasks.
The art of work group leadership is to mediate between both sides.
MATTERS OF SAFETY
What is the relationship between management and safety?
You frequently hear the words US and THEM.
We must succeed in making safety OUR affair.
Each level plays its part in this. Think of ”safety culture”!
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07|Leadership|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.3
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Figure 62 Different Levels of Leadership

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Page 128
08|Team Leader|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.3
TEAM LEADER
GENERAL
Do you recall the 4 clues of defining a team?.
1. several persons work towards a common aim or goal.
2. the team consists of a leader and at least one follower
3. the aim defines the composure of the team
4. mutual support, coordination, cooperation and communication are the most
important issues for successful team working.
The major task of a team leader is to coordinate! Even in a „perfect team“,
where every team member is devoted to achieve the aim or goal, there is a
need for someone who leads the team.
„Ah, that’s not for me - I’m not the foreman or supervisor“
Well, maybe you are involved in that role much quicker than you thought!
CHARACTERISTICS
What should an ”ideal teamleader” be like?
He or she delegates tasks and monitors the work progress. He (or she)
co-ordniates the daily work and he leads by example and persuasion (not by
pressure). He is flexible and motivates his team. Good attitudes and behaviors
are reinforced by a good team leader and he or she maintains the group. He or
she also fulfills the management role.
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08|Team Leader|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
EASA PART-66 M09
M9.3
Followers - Coordinates daily Work
- Delegates Tasks and monitors Work Progress
- Leads by Example and Persuation
- Flexibility
- Motivates his Team
- Reinforces good Attitudes and Behavior
- Maintains the Group
- Fulfils a Management Role
Leader
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Figure 63 Leadership Characteristics

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Page 130
01|General|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE
EASA PART-66 M09
Introduction
M9.4
HAM US/O-54 KuK Apr 12, 2021
M9.4 FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL
There are many factors that can lead to a reduction in human performance. In
this chapter the following subjects are covered:
Health and fitness, stress, work load, sleep, fatigue and shift work, as well as
alcohol, medicines and drug abuse.
These factors can change during your work life and, especially in the case of
shift work, there can be long−term effects. All factors interact with each other
except of alcohol, drug and drug abuse. This factor is definitely not acceptable
at work, while the others can be common burdens.
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Page 131
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Introduction
M9.4
Factors affecting Performance
Health and Fitness
Stress
Time Pressure Deadlines
Work Load
Sleep, Fatigue Shift Work
Alcohol, Medicines Drugs
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Figure 64 Factors Affecting Performance

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Page 132
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Introduction
M9.4
REASONS FOR MEDICAL CHECK-UPS
Working on the aircraft involves physical stress. On the one hand, strength is
required, on the other hand, very good fine motorical skills. The latter requires
a high concentration and attention. But fine motor skills are also needed in the
office and can lead to physical difficulties over the years.
This is the reason why a medical check-up is needed when you start as a
mechanic, technician etc, but you should also pay attention to your physical
fitness during your entire professional life because only a fit and healthy body
(and mind) is able to perform correctly. Not to forget: A good physical fitness
also improves the quality of life.
So please make use of “schedule maintenance“ - compulsory medical checks
up are the bottom line inspections only!
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Page 133
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Introduction
M9.4
Initial Medical
Check-Up
Day-to-Day
Fitness
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Figure 65 Reasons for Medical Check-Up and Day-to-Day Fitness

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Page 134
02|FitnessHealth|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Fitness/Health
M9.4
FITNESS AND HEALTH
FITNESS
ELEMENTS OF DAY-TO-DAY-FITNESS
Einleitung
It is obvious: only a healthy body can cope with the daily challenges -
especially at work! Here a few tips:
If in decent range your well being in general and mobility is usually improved
and as a (pleasant) side effect your blood pressure stays within limits at age.
Or at least there is better chance because experience shows that shift working
„over decades“ is one contributing factor that leads to a creeping increase of
your blood pressure to abnormal levels.
Your Personal sport program
Fitness: Your personal sport program should cater for...
S Cardio system (Walking, Jogging, Cycling, Swimming, etc. )
S Force (“mild form body building“)
S mobility (e.g. gymnastics)
and should be on a regular base.
If you look at the figure, which sport would you select to which part?
Correct. The mobility is enhanced by doing gymnastics. The muscular system
improves by doing mild body building and our cardio system needs jogging,
cycling or swimming etc.
Maybe you have found “your kind of sport“ - well, then simply enjoy!
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Page 135
02|FitnessHealth|A|B12|L1|WS
HUMAN FACTORS
EASA PART-66 M09
Fitness/Health
M9.4
Day-to-Day
Fitness
Lufthansa
Technical
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Figure 66 Sports Programme

B1-9 Human Factors - LTT.pdf

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