Dna replication (honors)
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The document discusses DNA replication. It explains that DNA must be copied before a cell divides so that each new cell has a complete set of chromosomes. DNA replication involves unwinding the DNA double helix and using each original strand as a template to build new complementary strands, with enzymes adding nucleotides that pair with the template by base pairing. The process continues along the DNA until the entire molecule is replicated.
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This document discusses cell reproduction and DNA replication. It begins by explaining the reasons cells divide, including growth, repair, and reproduction. It then describes asexual and sexual reproduction, noting their advantages and disadvantages. The document explains that DNA replication must occur before cell division to provide each new cell with a full set of chromosomes. It outlines the three main steps of DNA replication: unzipping, base pairing, and producing two new DNA molecules. Finally, it briefly discusses mitosis and has students assess their understanding through a self-assessment chart.
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2) Chromosomes contain DNA and package it tightly for storage in eukaryotic cells. DNA replication results in two DNA molecules each with one original and one new strand.
3) RNA acts as a messenger to transfer DNA instructions to the cell. Transcription and translation lead to protein synthesis on ribosomes according to the genetic code.
4) Mutations can occur through changes to nucleotides and can impact protein function, though most do not affect the organism.
Dna replication
- DNA replication involves unwinding the DNA double helix at the replication fork and using each single strand as a template to build new complementary strands in a semi-conservative manner, where each new double helix contains one original and one new strand.
- Replication proceeds bidirectionally from an origin of replication as the replication fork moves along the DNA in both directions. The leading strand is synthesized continuously while the lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously in fragments called Okazaki fragments.
- Several DNA polymerases and other proteins work together accurately and efficiently to copy the billions of bases in human DNA within a few hours during cell division.
DNA Replication
DNA replicationย is the biological process of producing two identical replicas of DNA from one originalย DNA molecule
Dna replication b.pharm
DNA replication is the process where a cell makes an identical copy of its DNA before cell division. It involves unwinding the DNA double helix into single strands, and using DNA polymerase to add complementary nucleotides to each strand to make two new double helix DNA molecules. It is semiconservative, starting at the origin of replication and proceeding bidirectionally. The leading strand is synthesized continuously while the lagging strand makes short Okazaki fragments that are later joined. DNA replication occurs with high fidelity to maintain genetic integrity as cells divide.
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Evolution of populations
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This document discusses several patterns of human genetics and heredity, including simple dominant and incomplete dominant inheritance. It provides examples of traits that follow each pattern, such as tongue rolling being a simple dominant trait and flower color in plants being an example of incomplete dominance. The document also covers codominance, polygenic inheritance, sex determination and sex-linked traits such as hemophilia. It explains how traits can be influenced by sex hormones in some cases.
Dna to chromosomes
The document discusses how eukaryotic cells package DNA into chromatin and chromosomes. DNA is found in the form of chromatin during interphase, which involves tightly coiling DNA around histone proteins to form nucleosomes. Nucleosomes are the basic unit of DNA packaging, allowing the 2 meters of DNA in human cells to fit inside the nucleus. Chromosomes only form when cells are preparing to divide and reproduce, allowing DNA to be passed from parent cells to daughter cells.
Species interactions comm ecology
This document summarizes the five major types of species interactions: predation, competition, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism. It defines each interaction and provides examples. Predation involves one species consuming another for food, while competition occurs when two species require the same limited resources. Parasitism benefits one species at the expense of the other. Mutualism is a cooperative relationship that benefits both species, such as pollination. In commensalism, one species benefits while the other is not affected.
The biosphere
The document summarizes the key spheres that make up Earth's biosphere - the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and anthrosphere. It then discusses Biosphere 2, an artificial closed ecosystem experiment in Arizona meant to study interactions within a biosphere. The experiment identified issues like too much CO2 and not enough O2 or food production. It also summarizes the major biogeochemical cycles of water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus that are vital to life on Earth.
Ecological succession
Ecological succession is the gradual replacement of one community by another over time. It is initiated by disturbances that remove existing organisms or alter resources and habitat. There are two types of succession: primary succession occurs in areas without soil, while secondary succession occurs in areas with existing soil following a disturbance. In both cases, pioneer species are the first to colonize, and succession progresses gradually until an equilibrium climax community dominated by less tolerant species is reached if undisturbed.
Unique properties of water
Water is a polar molecule that is essential for life. Its polarity allows it to dissolve many other polar substances and act as a solvent for biological molecules and reactions in living cells and organisms. Water has unique physical properties, such as a high heat capacity and ability to form hydrogen bonds, that make it well-suited to regulate temperature and support life processes on Earth. The polarity and hydrogen bonding of water molecules also allow water to have high surface tension and influence many other physical phenomena.
Cells of the six kingdoms
There are six kingdoms that classify life on Earth - Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Eubacteria and Archaebacteria are prokaryotic and unicellular, while Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia are eukaryotic. Protista can be unicellular or multicellular, Fungi and Plantae are multicellular, and Animalia are always multicellular. The kingdoms differ in their cell structures, body forms, and modes of nutrition, which can include photosynthesis, chemosynthesis, heterotrophic nutrition like phagocytosis, or secretion and absorption of enzymes
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Dna replication (honors)
- 1. DNA
- 2. DNA review ๏ฌ DNA codes for all information necessary for life ๏ฌ The information is stored in the sequence of nucleotide bases ๏ฌ It is a quaternary codeโฆ ๏ฌ The sequence is important โ Human Genome Project: Sequence of roughly 3.2 billion bases in human DNA!
- 3. A Perfect Copy ๏ฌWhen a cell divides, each new cell receives a complete set of chromosomes. ๏ฌThis means that each new cell has a complete set of the DNA code. ๏ฌBefore a cell can divide, the DNA must be copied so that there are two sets ready to be distributed to the new cells.
- 4. DNA structure ๏ฌ Recall that once Watson and Crick made the correct model, they instantly realized a copying mechanism. ๏ฌ Due to the structure of DNA (specifically the base-pairing arrangement), if the order of nucleotides on one chain is known, the order on the other chain is obvious.
- 13. ๏ฌ DNA is copied through a process called DNA replication. ๏ฌ The process, though seemingly simple, is actually quite complex. ๏ฌ Energy is required. โ Comes from which molecule? ๏ฌ Many enzymes and proteins are required for DNA replication.
- 14. Where does replication happen? ๏ฌ Eukaryotes? ๏ฌ Prokaryotes?
- 15. In a nutshellโฆ ๏ฌ To start, an enzyme breaks the hydrogen bonds that hold base-pairs together. ๏ฌ This process โunzipsโ the DNA molecule. ๏ฌ Other enzymes find and correctly match free- floating nucleotides to the two sides of the now open DNA molecule. ๏ฌ This process continues until the entire molecule has been replicated.
- 17. Replication forkโฆ what happens ๏ฌ Many different enzymes are needed to open up the DNA helix for replication ๏ฌ Two strands must be separated first ๏ฌ Helicases do this โฆ ๏ฌ Pry apart the hydrogen bonds of the two DNA strandsโฆ
- 19. Template Strands and New Strands
- 20. DNA polymerases build new strands. Growth Growth Replication fork DNA polymerase New strand Original strand DNA polymerase Nitrogenous bases Replication fork Original strand New strand
- 21. DNA Replication fork is asymmetrical ๏ฌ Leading and lagging strands are different ๏ฌ The leading strand is continuous ๏ฌ The lagging strand has fragments and is synthesized discontinuously. โ Okazaki fragments
- 23. High fidelity requires proof reading ๏ฌ DNA polymerase synthesizes in a 5โ to 3โ direction ๏ฌ Proof reading is in a 3โ-5โ direction ๏ฌ Can take out mismatched bases with reverse action
- 24. Fig 5-9
- 25. Helicasesโฆ ๏ฌ Many different helicases have been identified ๏ฌ Single stranded binding proteins are important in maintaining the single stranded nature at the replication fork & so no hair pins can form
- 27. Replication starts at replication origins.
- 28. โข Each eukaryotic chromosome contains one DNA double helix โข Average ~106 base pairs long โข With a replication rate of 2 kb/minute, replicating one human chromosome would require ~35 days. โข Solution ---> DNA replication initiates at many different sites simultaneously. Rates are cell specific!
- 29. Three main features of the DNA synthesis reaction: 1. DNA polymerase catalyzes formation of phosphodiester bond between deoxyribose and the phosphate on the new strand. โข Energy for this reaction is derived from the release of two of the three phosphates on the free nucleotide. 2. DNA polymerase โfindsโ the correct complementary nucleotide at each step in the lengthening process. โข rate 50-1000 bases/second โข low error rate (~1/107 ) 3. Direction of synthesis is 5โ to 3โ Image credit: Protein Data Bank
- 30. DNA Replication Overview Replication Animation