This document discusses digital voltmeters (DVMs). It explains that DVMs display voltage measurements as numerical readings rather than using an analog needle gauge. The document covers various types of DVMs including ramp type, dual slope integrating type, successive approximation type, and microprocessor-based versions. It provides block diagrams and explanations of the operating principles for different DVM designs. Advantages of DVMs like accuracy, ease of reading, and versatility are also summarized.
The inverter is a static device. It can convert one form of electrical power into other forms of electrical power. But it cannot generate electrical power. Hence the inverter is a converter, not a generator.
The inverter is a static device. It can convert one form of electrical power into other forms of electrical power. But it cannot generate electrical power. Hence the inverter is a converter, not a generator.
Here we study the construction of hay's bridge, hay's bridge theory with expression, and example, hay's bridge phasor diagram. The Hay’s bridge is used for determining the self-inductance of the circuit. The bridge is the advanced form of Maxwell’s bridge.
The transducer whose resistance varies because of the environmental effects such type of transducer is known as the resistive transducer. The change in resistance is measured by the ac or dc measuring devices. The resistive transducer is used for measuring the physical quantities like temperature, displacement, vibration etc.
The measurement of the physical quantity is quite difficult. The resistive transducer converts the physical quantities into variable resistance which is easily measured by the meters. The process of variation in resistance is widely used in the industrial applications.
The resistive transducer can work both as the primary as well as the secondary transducer. The primary transducer changes the physical quantities into a mechanical signal, and secondary transducer directly transforms it into an electrical signal.
Working Principle of Resistive Transducer
The resistive transducer element works on the principle that the resistance of the element is directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the area of the conductor. equation-1
Where R – resistance in ohms.
A – cross-section area of the conductor in meter square.
L – Length of the conductor in meter square.
ρ – the resistivity of the conductor in materials in ohm meter.
The resistive transducer is designed by considering the variation of the length, area and resistivity of the metal.
Applications of Resistive Transducer
The following are the applications of the resistive transducer.
Potentiometer – The translation and rotatory potentiometer are the examples of the resistive transducers. The resistance of their conductor varies with the variation in their lengths which is used for the measurement of displacement.
Strain gauges – The resistance of their semiconductor material changes when the strain occurs on it. This property of metals is used for the measurement of the pressure, force-displacement etc.
Resistance Thermometer – The resistance of the metals changes because of changes in temperature. This property of conductor is used for measuring the temperature.
Thermistor – It works on the principle that the temperature coefficient of the thermistor material varies with the temperature. The thermistor has the negative temperature coefficient. The Negative temperature coefficient means the temperature is inversely proportional to resistance.
Here we study the construction of hay's bridge, hay's bridge theory with expression, and example, hay's bridge phasor diagram. The Hay’s bridge is used for determining the self-inductance of the circuit. The bridge is the advanced form of Maxwell’s bridge.
The transducer whose resistance varies because of the environmental effects such type of transducer is known as the resistive transducer. The change in resistance is measured by the ac or dc measuring devices. The resistive transducer is used for measuring the physical quantities like temperature, displacement, vibration etc.
The measurement of the physical quantity is quite difficult. The resistive transducer converts the physical quantities into variable resistance which is easily measured by the meters. The process of variation in resistance is widely used in the industrial applications.
The resistive transducer can work both as the primary as well as the secondary transducer. The primary transducer changes the physical quantities into a mechanical signal, and secondary transducer directly transforms it into an electrical signal.
Working Principle of Resistive Transducer
The resistive transducer element works on the principle that the resistance of the element is directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the area of the conductor. equation-1
Where R – resistance in ohms.
A – cross-section area of the conductor in meter square.
L – Length of the conductor in meter square.
ρ – the resistivity of the conductor in materials in ohm meter.
The resistive transducer is designed by considering the variation of the length, area and resistivity of the metal.
Applications of Resistive Transducer
The following are the applications of the resistive transducer.
Potentiometer – The translation and rotatory potentiometer are the examples of the resistive transducers. The resistance of their conductor varies with the variation in their lengths which is used for the measurement of displacement.
Strain gauges – The resistance of their semiconductor material changes when the strain occurs on it. This property of metals is used for the measurement of the pressure, force-displacement etc.
Resistance Thermometer – The resistance of the metals changes because of changes in temperature. This property of conductor is used for measuring the temperature.
Thermistor – It works on the principle that the temperature coefficient of the thermistor material varies with the temperature. The thermistor has the negative temperature coefficient. The Negative temperature coefficient means the temperature is inversely proportional to resistance.
Digital Voltmeter, Digital Ammeter and Digital MultimeterPraveen Kumar
This ppt deals with Digital meters,the digital components used in them,principle behind the working of Digital Voltmeter(DC) Digital Voltmeter(AC) and mechanism of Measurement of Current and Measurement of Resistance. Finally A complete DMM also the Measurement of hfe. A small project on constructing digital voltmeter and ohmmeter using Arduino.
Unit IV DA & AD Convertors and Phase Locked LoopDr.Raja R
Analog-to-digital, digital-to-analog, sample and hold circuits; voltage controlled oscillator, phase locked loop – operating principles, applications of PLL.
The content is related to Analog electronics. The prEsentation contains ADC process, Sampling and holding, Quantizing and encoding, Flash ADC, Pipeline ADC etc.
Design and Simulation of First Order Sigma-Delta Modulator Using LT spice ToolIJERA Editor
A switched-capacitor single-stage Sigma-Delta ADC with a first-order modulator is proposed. Efficient low power first Order 1-Bit Sigma-Delta ADC designed which accepts input signal bandwidth of 10 MHz. This circuitry performs the function of an analog-to-digital converter. A first-order 1-Bit Sigma-Delta (Σ-Δ) modulator is designed, simulated and analyzed using LTspice standard 250nm CMOS technology power supply of 1.8V. The modulator is proved to be robustness, the high performance in stability. The simulations are compared with those from a traditional analog-to-digital converter to prove that Sigma-Delta is performing better with low power and area.
it is a analog to digital convertor using single slope technique.
it is a 4 bit ADC.
here i have tried to simulate the 4 bit ADC using single slope technique.
here i have used MULTISIM software for simulation.
Long & Short Interruptions: Interruptions – Definition – Difference between failures,
outage, Interruptions – causes of Long Interruptions – Origin of Interruptions – Limits for the
Interruption frequency – Limits for the interruption duration – costs of Interruption –
Overview of Reliability evaluation to power quality, comparison of observations and
reliability evaluation.Short interruptions: definition, origin of short interruptions, basic principle, fuse saving,
voltage magnitude events due to re-closing, voltage during the interruption, monitoring of
short interruptions, difference between medium and low voltage systems. Multiple events,
single phase tripping – voltage and current during fault period, voltage and current at post
fault period
basic electrical and electronics engg. components of LT switch gear, switch fuse unit, MCB, MCCB, ELCB, TYPES OF WIRES AND CABLES, ELECTRICAL EARTHING, TYPES OF BATTERIES,
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
Automobile Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
The proposed project is developed to manage the automobile in the automobile dealer company. The main module in this project is login, automobile management, customer management, sales, complaints and reports. The first module is the login. The automobile showroom owner should login to the project for usage. The username and password are verified and if it is correct, next form opens. If the username and password are not correct, it shows the error message.
When a customer search for a automobile, if the automobile is available, they will be taken to a page that shows the details of the automobile including automobile name, automobile ID, quantity, price etc. “Automobile Management System” is useful for maintaining automobiles, customers effectively and hence helps for establishing good relation between customer and automobile organization. It contains various customized modules for effectively maintaining automobiles and stock information accurately and safely.
When the automobile is sold to the customer, stock will be reduced automatically. When a new purchase is made, stock will be increased automatically. While selecting automobiles for sale, the proposed software will automatically check for total number of available stock of that particular item, if the total stock of that particular item is less than 5, software will notify the user to purchase the particular item.
Also when the user tries to sale items which are not in stock, the system will prompt the user that the stock is not enough. Customers of this system can search for a automobile; can purchase a automobile easily by selecting fast. On the other hand the stock of automobiles can be maintained perfectly by the automobile shop manager overcoming the drawbacks of existing system.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Courier management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
It is now-a-days very important for the people to send or receive articles like imported furniture, electronic items, gifts, business goods and the like. People depend vastly on different transport systems which mostly use the manual way of receiving and delivering the articles. There is no way to track the articles till they are received and there is no way to let the customer know what happened in transit, once he booked some articles. In such a situation, we need a system which completely computerizes the cargo activities including time to time tracking of the articles sent. This need is fulfilled by Courier Management System software which is online software for the cargo management people that enables them to receive the goods from a source and send them to a required destination and track their status from time to time.
2. Digital Voltmeter (DVM)
Voltmeter is an electrical measuring instrument used to
measure potential difference between two points. The
voltage to be measured may be AC or DC.
Two types of voltmeters are available for the purpose of
voltage measurement i.e. analog and digital. Analog
voltmeters generally contain a dial with a needle moving
over it according to the measure and hence displaying the
value of the same.
Digital voltmeters display the value of AC or DC voltage
being measured directly as discrete numerical instead of a
pointer deflection on a continuous scale as in analog
instruments.
3. Advantages:
Read out of DVMs is easy as it eliminates
observational errors in measurement committed by
operators.
Error on account of parallax and approximation is entirely
eliminated.
Reading can be taken very fast.
Output can be fed to memory devices for storage and
future computations.
Versatile and accurate
Compact and cheap
Low power requirements
Portability increased
4. Very high accuracy (5 to 0.05%)
Has very input impedance (2MΩ)
which ensures less loading effect on
the input.
The numeric display of digital meters
provide zero parallax error
6. Classification of DVM’s :
• Ramp type digital voltmeter
• Dual slope Integrating type voltmeter
• Micro processor based ramp type digital
voltmeters
• Successive approximation type digital
voltmeter
• Continuous balance type digital voltmeter
8. Features
Polarity detection
Auto ranging
Auto zeroing
Polarity detection:
The information is given by the ADC.
When the voltage is +ve, the characteristic
curve of the converter is in first quadrant.
The characteristic curve will be in the fourth
quadrant, if the voltage is –ve
9. DVM (AC)
The AC is processed first i.e., phase
compensated attenuation with
rectification and filtering is done.
The dc voltage obtained is converted
into a digital word, which is displayed.
For high frequencies, a precision
diode with small reverse recovery time
is required.
10. RAMP TYPE DVM
The main building block of ramp type dvm is a ramp
generator. This is generating a waveform which is
representing a ramp. The heart of the circuit is the ramp
generator.
Therefore it is called ramp type digital voltmeter(DVM).
The input which should be measured is given at input
voltage.
This input fed to ranging and attenuator circuit which will
amplify the signal if it is small or attenuates the
signal if it is large.
11. This is given to an input comparator which will compare two
signals and generate the output.
One input to the input comparator is from the input voltage and
another input from the ramp.
This input voltage and ramp signal are compared and output is
given. If the ramp signal is more than input voltage there will be
no output but if the input voltage is greater than the ramp signal
then a is generated which will open the gate.
Now when the gate get opened, clock oscillator will send clock
pulses which are counted by the counter and displays on the
screen.
12. Operating Principle:
The operating principle of ramp type digital
voltmeter is to measure the
time that a linear ramp voltage takes to change from
the level of the input voltage to zero
voltage (or vice versa). This time interval is measured
with an electronic time interval counter
and the count is displayed as a number of digits on
electronic indicating tubes of the output
readout of the voltmeter.
14. Dual slope Integrating type DVM
The dual-slope type of A to D conversion is a very
popular method for digital voltmeter applications.
When compared to other types of analog-to-digital
conversion techniques, the dual-slope method is slow
but is quite adequate for a digital voltmeter used for
laboratory measurements.
For data acquisition applications, where a number of
measurements are required, faster techniques are
recommended.
15. Introduction:
Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM – In
ramp techniques, superimposed noise
can cause large errors.
In the dual ramp technique, noise is
averaged out by the positive and
negative ramps using the process of
integration.
16. Principle of dual slope DVM:
The input voltage ’ei’ is integrated, with the slope of
the integrator output proportional to the test input
voltage.
After a fixed time equal to t1, the input voltage is
disconnected and the integrator input is connected to
a negative voltage — er The integrator output will have
a negative slope which is constant and proportional to
the magnitude of the input voltage.
19. Successive approximation type DVM:
Successive Approximation type ADC is the
most widely used and popular ADC method.
The conversion time is maintained constant
in successive approximation type ADC, and
is proportional to the number of bits in the
digital output, unlike the counter and
continuous type A/D converters.
20. The basic principle of this type of A/D converter is
that the unknown analog input voltage is
approximated against an n-bit digital value by
trying one bit at a time, beginning with the MSB.
The principle of successive approximation process
for a 4-bit conversion is explained here. This type
of ADC operates by successively dividing the
voltage range by half, as explained in the following
steps.
21. It consists of a successive approximation register (SAR),
DAC and comparator. The output of SAR is given to n-bit
DAC. The equivalent analog output voltage of DAC, VD is
applied to the non-inverting input of the comparator.
The second input to the comparator is the unknown analog
input voltage VA.
The output of the comparator is used to activate the
successive approximation logic of SAR.
When the start command is applied, the SAR sets the MSB
to logic 1 and other bits are made logic 0, so that the trial
code becomes 1000.
22.
23. Advantages:
1 Conversion time is very small.
2 Conversion time is constant and
independent of the amplitude of the analog
input signal VA.
Disadvantages:
1 Circuit is complex.
2 The conversion time is more compared to
flash type ADC.
24. Digital Frequency Meter
Digital frequency meter is a general
purpose instrument that displays the
frequency of a periodic electrical signal to
an accuracy of three decimal places. It
counts the number events occurring within
the oscillations during a given interval of
time.
25. A frequency meter has a small device which
converts the sinusoidal voltage of the
frequency into a train of unidirectional
pulses.
The frequency of input signal is the
displayed count, averaged over a suitable
counting interval out of 0.1, 1.0, or 10
seconds. These three intervals repeat
themselves sequentially.
27. The range of modern digital frequency meter is
between the range from104 to 109 hertz. The possibility
of relative measurement error ranges between from 10-
9 to 10-11 hertz and a sensitivity of 10-2 volt.
For testing radio equipment
Measuring the temperature, pressure, and other
physical values.
Measuring vibration, strain
Measuring transducers