The tongue develops from endodermal and ectodermal tissues originating from the pharyngeal arches. The thyroid gland develops from an endodermal diverticulum that descends in the neck and remains connected to the tongue via the thyroglossal duct. The face develops from five prominences, with the nose forming from the frontal prominence and medial and lateral nasal prominences. The palate develops as the palatine shelves rotate and fuse in the midline. Congenital anomalies can affect structures developing from the pharyngeal arches, including cleft lip/palate and thyroglossal duct cysts.
Anatomy of the Temporal region & Temporomandibular jointRafid Rashid
Provides a detailed description of the gross anatomy of the temporal fossa, infratemporal fossa & temporomandibular joint. The boundaries & the structures present in the temporal & infratemporal fossa, the formation & movements of the TMJ & also includes branches of the mandibular nerve & maxillary artery.
Anatomy of the Temporal region & Temporomandibular jointRafid Rashid
Provides a detailed description of the gross anatomy of the temporal fossa, infratemporal fossa & temporomandibular joint. The boundaries & the structures present in the temporal & infratemporal fossa, the formation & movements of the TMJ & also includes branches of the mandibular nerve & maxillary artery.
Course in facial development for European Course in Neuroradiology in Tarragona, Spain, originally on 12 octobre 2008. Revised for November, 2010. For questions, e-mail to etchevers at free dot fr. Download for the animations to take place, as some pictures are covered by others.
Central face begins to develop by 4th week, when olfactory placodes appear on both sides of the frontonasal process.
Gradually both placodes develop to form the median and lateral nasal process.
Upper lip is formed by 6th week by fusion of two median nasal processes in midline and the maxilllary process of the 1st branchial arch.
PRE-NATAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF PALATEFormation of primary and secondary palate
Elevation of palatal shelves
Fusion of palatal shelves
Pterygopalatine Fossa
Skeletal Framework of pterygopalatine fossa
Formation of pterygopalatine fossa
Location of pterygopalatine fossa
Contents of pterygopalatine fossa
Boundries of Pterygopalatine Fossa
Course in facial development for European Course in Neuroradiology in Tarragona, Spain, originally on 12 octobre 2008. Revised for November, 2010. For questions, e-mail to etchevers at free dot fr. Download for the animations to take place, as some pictures are covered by others.
Central face begins to develop by 4th week, when olfactory placodes appear on both sides of the frontonasal process.
Gradually both placodes develop to form the median and lateral nasal process.
Upper lip is formed by 6th week by fusion of two median nasal processes in midline and the maxilllary process of the 1st branchial arch.
PRE-NATAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF PALATEFormation of primary and secondary palate
Elevation of palatal shelves
Fusion of palatal shelves
Pterygopalatine Fossa
Skeletal Framework of pterygopalatine fossa
Formation of pterygopalatine fossa
Location of pterygopalatine fossa
Contents of pterygopalatine fossa
Boundries of Pterygopalatine Fossa
Course in facial development for European Course in Neuroradiology in Tarragona, Spain, on 12 octobre 2008. For questions, e-mail to etchevers at free dot fr. Download to play the animations (especially as some pictures are covered by others)
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Big thanks to Dr. Syed Mukith, Dr. Prashant, and Dr. Sreeja.
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Tongue is a muscular structure that has the organs of taste reception. The organs for sense of taste are the taste buds. Tongue is located inside the mouth and is an important muscle. It does not have any bones. It is reddish-pink in color. The main function of tongue is taste, help in chewing food, in swallowing food and speech.
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Similar to Development of the Face, Tongue, Palate, Thyroid gland (20)
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
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Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
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Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
2. Describe the development of the
tongue and the thyroid gland.
Describe the development of the face,
palate, and nasal cavity.
Describe the congenital anomalies
associated with the development of the
pharyngeal apparatus, face and palate.
3. The first endocrine gland to appear in embryonic
development.
- 24 days after fertilization
- Median endodermal thickening
- Thyroid diverticulum
- Thyroid glossal duct
Becomes functional at about end of first trimester of
preg. With formation of follicular cells/follicles
containing colloid for production of T3 and T4.
Also C-cells secreting cacitonin (ultimobrachial body-
4th
/5th
arch)
4.
5. is a diverticulum that originates at the level of the first
pouch.
It arises from the floor of the pharynx and migrates
caudally to a position ventral and inferior to the larynx.
This diverticulum forms a right and left lobe with an
isthmus of thyroid tissue between.
During development, the thyroid gland continues to
retain a connection with the pharyngeal lumen. This
connection is known as the thyroglossal duct
Ordinarily, the thyroglossal duct closes off, leaving only
an enlarged pit on the tongue (the foramen cecum)
to mark its point of origin.
6. begins as a downward growth from the floor of the
pharynx called the thyroid diverticulum.
As it descends down the neck to lie below the larynx
and anterior to the trachea,
it remains connected to the tongue via the
thyroglossal duct.
In the adult, a remnant of this duct persists in the tongue
as the foramen cecum.
10. The endodermal derivatives of all the pharyngeal arches
give rise to its formation in the region where the
stomodeum and primitive pharynx meet.
It is seen initially as a proliferation of mesenchyme
(mesoderm).
The stomodeum is lined by ectoderm
NB: The lateral lingual swellings- which forms most
part of the body of the tongue, is lined by ectoderm.
11. Near the end of the fourth week.
Median triangular elevation in the floor of the primitive
pharynx.
Median tongue bud - Tuberculum Impar- First Arch
Distal tongue bud
Copula and Hypobranchial eminence - Third Arch
12. The tuberculum impar- at the caudal level
of the first arch,
forms part of the body of the tongue and is
covered by endoderm.
The root of the tongue develops from a
primitive swelling - the hypo-branchial
eminence (copula),
at the levels of the second, third and fourth
pharyngeal arches.
At the level of the fourth arch, an epiglottic
swelling arises which lies cephalic to the
laryngotracheal groove.
13. A small nodule- the tuberculum impar, first appeared in the
developing tongue in the floor of the pharynx.
This is later covered over by the lingual swellings, one on each
side, derived from the first branchial arch.
They both fused in the midline to form the definitive anterior two-
thirds of the tongue supplied by V and reinforced by chorda
tympani (special sensory).
Posteriorly, this mass meets the copula (or hypobranchial
eminence), a central swelling in the pharyngeal floor, which
represents the 2nd, 3rd and 4th arches to form the posterior one-
third of the tongue (nerve supply IX and X).
The tongue muscles are derived from the occipital myotomes,
which migrate forward dragging with them their nerve supply (XII-
the hypoglossal nerve).
14. ◦ Contributions from all arches
◦ which changes with time
◦ begins as swelling rostral to foramen cecum
◦ median tongue bud - Tuberculum Impar
Arch 1
◦ oral part of tongue (ant 2/3)
Arch 2
◦ initial contribution to surface is lost
Arch 3
◦ pharyngeal part of tongue (post 1/3)
Arch 4
◦ epiglottis and adjacent regions
Salivary Glands
◦ epithelial buds in oral cavity (wk 6-7),
◦ extend into mesenchyme
15.
16. 4th week facial promordia appear around the
stomodeum.
Under inductive influence - Proliferation of Neural crest
cells.
Involvement of 1st
pharyngeal arch and the whole
process takes about 4-10 wks of development.
5 Facial Promordia develop
Single Median Fronto nasal Prominence - V1
Paired Maxillary Prominence - V2
Paired Mandibular Prominence - V3
19. During the fifth week, the nasal placodes invaginate to
form nasal pits.
Then, we have a ridge of tissue that surrounds each pit
and forms the nasal prominences.
The prominences on the outer edge of the pits are
the lateral nasal prominences;
those on the inner edge are the medial nasal
prominences
21. the frontonasal process which projects down from the
cranium.
Two olfactory pits develop in it and rupture into the
pharynx to form the nostrils.
this process hence forms the nose, the nasal septum,
nostril, the philtrum of the upper lip (the small midline
depression) and the premaxilla
—the V-shaped anterior portion of the upper jaw which
usually bears the four incisor teeth;
22. the maxillary processes on each side, which fuse
with the frontonasal process and become:
the cheeks,
upper lip (exclusive of the philtrum),
Upper jaw and
palate (apart from the premaxilla);
23. nasolacrimal groove
nasolacrimal duct-canalized groove
MP + LNP fusion, leads to the connection of the
nasolacrimal duct from the medial side of the eye
to the inferior meatus of the nasal cavity.
Ear Auricles -
◦ form from 6 auricular hillocks (week 5)
◦ 3 on each of arch 1 and 2
24. the mandibular processes, which meets in the
midline form the lower jaw/mandible.
25. The nose is formed from five facial prominences :
the frontal prominence gives rise to the bridge;
the merged medial nasal prominences-provide the crest
and tip; and
the lateral nasal prominences form the sides
(alae)
31. By wk 7-The floor of the nasal cavity at this stage is a
posterior extension of the intermaxillary process known
as the primary palate.
The medial walls of the maxillary swellings begin to
produce a pair of thin medial extensions, 'palatine
shelves', which grow inferiorly on either side of the
tongue.
By wk 8-The tongue moves downward and the palatine
shelves rapidly rotate upwards towards the midline,
growing horizontally.
By wk 9- The palatine shelves begin to fuse
ventrodorsally with each other, the primary palate and
the inferior nasal septum.
32.
33. Lateral Palatine Processes
Nasal Septum
Hard and Soft Palate
By wk 10- The ventral secondary palate becomes the
bony hard palate through mesenchymal condensations
(endochondral ossification).
The dorsal secondary palate becomes the soft palate
through myogenic mesenchymal condensation
34.
35.
36.
37.
38. Nasal placodes - become nasal pits
Oronasal/bucconasal membrane
The Conchae - Superior
Middle
Inferior-
39. The maxillary and medial nasal processes
bulge forward together and the epithelium on
their surfaces fuse to form a sheet, the nasal
fin.
Subsequently this nasal fin breaks down such
that both maxillary and medial nasal
mesenchyme now intermingle.
The epithelial fins behind this fusion are
stretched out laterally to form the bucconasal
membranes and this also break down to form
the nasal choanae that is connecting the
nasal pits and the stomatodeum/stomodeum.
40.
41. The tissues below the nasal pits now form the
primary palate or intermaxillary segment.
The posterior part will form -the premaxillary
part of the definitive palate,
the intermediate zone -premaxillary alveolar
process and teeth,
the anterior zone- the medial portion of the
upper lip.
42.
43. 5 facial prominences
Bridge-frontal prominence
Crest and tip- merged MNPs
Side alar/labie-LNPs
44. During the sixth week, the nasal pits deepen
considerably, partly due to growth of the surrounding
nasal prominences and partly their penetration into the
underlying mesenchyme.
At first the oronasal /bucco-nasal membrane
separates the pits from the primitive oral cavity by way
of the newly formed foramina, the primitive
choanae.
These choanae lie on each side of the midline and
immediately behind the primary palate.
Later, with formation of the secondary palate and
further development of the primitive nasal chambers,
the definitive choanae lie at the junction of the
nasal cavity and the pharynx.
45.
46. Paranasal air sinuses develop as diverticula
of the lateral nasal wall and
extend into the maxilla, ethmoid, frontal, and
sphenoid bones.
They reach their maximum size during puberty
and
contribute also to the definitive shape of the face.
47.
48. First Arch Syndrome
◦ 2 major types, both result in extensive facial abnormalites
◦ Teacher Collins`s Syndrome
◦ Pierre Robin`s Syndrome
Cervical Fistulas and Cysts - Incomplete fusion or
remnants of the walls of the cervical sinus (second
branchial groove).
The internal openings of fistulas are at the sites of the
pharyngeal membranes;
the external openings are along the anterior border of
the sternocleidomastoid muscle.
49. Bifid Tongue - A midline split in the anterior two-thirds
of the tongue
due to improper fusion of the lateral lingual swellings.
Thyroglossal Duct Cyst - A cyst of remnants of all or
part of the thyroglossal duct.
In removing this cyst, a portion of the body of the hyoid
bone is often removed, because the hyoid bone grows
around the developmental path of this structure.
Retention and enlargement of that portion of the
thyroglossal duct in contact with the thyroid results in the
formation of a pyramidal lobe.
50. DiGeorge`s Syndrome
◦ absence of thymus and parathyroid glands
◦ 3rd and 4th pouch do not form
◦ disturbance of cervical neural crest migration.
Holoprosencephaly
◦ shh abnormality
NB: SHH genes
◦ expressed in arches
◦ regulates midface formation
Pax-3 genes expressed in placode cells
◦ contribute to the CNV
◦ ophthalmic branch
Maternal Effects
◦ Retinoic Acid
present in skin ointments
1988 associated with facial developmental abnormalities
Abnormalities from the Maternal Effects
51. Cleft Lip and Palate
◦ 300+ different abnormalities
◦ different cleft forms and extent
◦ upper lip and ant. maxilla
◦ hard and soft palate
Etiology is again multifactorial, with the same teratogens as for
cleft lip
an x-linked cleft palate syndrome has
1. Cleft lip
◦ Unilateral
◦ Bilateral
2. Median Cleft Lip-complete/incomplete
52. due to alcohol in early development (week 3+)
facial and neurological abnormalities
lowered ears, small face, mild retardation
Microcephaly - leads to small head circumference
Short Palpebral fissure - opening of eye
Epicanthal folds - fold of skin at inside of corner of eye
Flat mid face
Low nasal bridge
Indistinct Philtrum - vertical grooves between nose and mouth
Thin upper lip
Micrognathia - small jaw
exposure of embryos in vitro to ethanol simulates premature
differentiation of prechondrogenic mesenchyme of the facial
primordial (1999)
53. these are pleuripotent cells that develop from the
neural folds and migrate widely in the embryo to give
rise to many nervous structures:
Spinal ganglia (dorsal root ganglia)
Ganglia of the autonomic nervous system
Ganglia of some cranial nerves
Sheaths of peripheral nerves
Meninges of brain and spinal cord
Pigment cells
Suprarenal medulla
Skeletal and muscular components in the head
54. - Mandibulo-facial dysostosis results from a symmetrical loss
of neural crest cells destined to migrate by the longer posterior route into the
face (Poswillo)
There is hypoplasia of the zygomatic bone and a deficiency
or absence of the arch. As a result there is an antimongoloid slant to the
palpebral fissure.
There may be a coloboma of the lower eyelid with absence of lashes lateral
to the notch and hypoplasia of the mandible resulting in a lack of chin and
an anterior open bite.
The ears are set low and the auricles and middle ear structures may be
deficient in severe cases.
The abnormality tends to run in families.