Low salinity water flooding as an Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Technique refers to the injection of brine with a lower salt content or ionic strength into an oil reservoir. Although the mechanisms have not yet been verified, the solution and surface chemistry as well as rock/fluid interactions have important roles that can be attributed to reservoir minerals being sensitive to small changes in solution properties. Among the proposed mechanisms, the clay content of rock and type of clay has been of significant interest in shedding light on the low salinity water flooding process. In this paper, two clay types (illite and kaolinite) have been selected to investigate the individual contribution of each on the rock surface characterization andlow salinity water flooding performance.
The results from contact angle measurement on the oil-wet calcite by low salinity water at room temperature show that the presence of low content of illite in the rock materials, in contrast to the kaolinite, reduces the contact angle significantly. This observation demonstrates that the low salinity water flooding performance depends strongly on the type of clay not on the amount of clay.
This document provides an overview of soil mechanics as a discipline of civil engineering. It discusses the development of soil mechanics as a field systematized by Karl Von Terzaghi. The key topics covered include soil classification, compaction, soil-water relationships, stress distribution and settlement, shear strength, and slope stability. The overall objective is to impart knowledge on the physical and engineering behavior of soils, stress transfer in soils, and stability analysis of slopes. Various laboratory and field tests are also introduced to determine important engineering properties of soils.
Efecto de sulfato de calcio en propiedades geotécnicas de suelos arcillososJhulianaNieva1
This document summarizes an experimental study that investigated the effect of calcium sulphate (CaSO4.2H2O) on the geotechnical properties of two clayey soils (grey clay and red clay) stabilized with lime, natural pozzolana, and their combination. The study measured changes in Atterberg limits and unconfined compressive strength with the addition of calcium sulphate over various curing periods. The results showed that lime and the lime-pozzolana combination successfully reduced plasticity and increased strength for both soils. The addition of calcium sulphate to these mixtures further decreased plasticity and provided higher strength gains.
This document summarizes an experiment that studied how the composition of molten sulfide liquids affects their ability to wet and spread across olivine, an important mantle mineral. The experiment varied the oxygen and sulfur fugacity during heating to simulate mantle conditions, and added different amounts of nickel, copper and cobalt to the molten sulfide to model natural sulfide compositions. The results showed that sulfide wetting decreased with lower oxygen fugacity and increased metal content in the sulfide. Wetting controls how sulfides distribute and migrate within cooling magmas and the mantle, influencing ore deposit formation and elemental transport.
1. The document provides an introduction to soil mechanics including definitions of soil, soil mechanics, and the three phases of soil - solids, water, and air.
2. Soil can be classified as residual soils which form in place from weathering or transported soils which are deposited by forces like water, wind, or glaciers.
3. Understanding the properties of soil is important for civil engineers to effectively use soil in construction projects and address problems related to shear failure, settlement, seepage, and dynamic loading.
Fluid inclusions in metamorphic rocks provide information about fluids present during metamorphism. Fluid inclusions form when small portions of fluid get trapped in mineral crystals during their growth. Studies of fluid inclusions in South Indian granulites show they commonly contain CO2-rich fluids. Massive/banded charnockites from this region experienced high-grade metamorphism between 5-10.5 kbars and 550-880°C, indicating burial depths of 12-35 km. The quartz in these rocks contains primary and pseudosecondary CO2-rich inclusions with densities of 1.10-1.15 g/cc, providing evidence of the presence of CO2-rich fluids
A presentation on Hydrothermal wall rock alteration with case studies on geophysical applications.
References : https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/16VSZMPMASMNVB47JdBUa_7udBk1qvK2U?usp=sharing
Mineralization of Carbon from Sewage sludge in three soils of the Argentine p...Silvana Torri
Como citar este trabajo
Torri S, Alvarez R, Lavado R. 2003. Mineralization of Carbon from Sewage sludge in three soils of the Argentine pampas. Commun. Soil Sci. and Plant Anal. (Taylor & Francis, Inc., 325 Chestnut Street, Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106) 34 (13-14): 2035-2043. ISSN (impresa): 0010-3624. ISSN (electronica): 1532-2416.
This document provides an overview of soil mechanics as a discipline of civil engineering. It discusses the development of soil mechanics as a field systematized by Karl Von Terzaghi. The key topics covered include soil classification, compaction, soil-water relationships, stress distribution and settlement, shear strength, and slope stability. The overall objective is to impart knowledge on the physical and engineering behavior of soils, stress transfer in soils, and stability analysis of slopes. Various laboratory and field tests are also introduced to determine important engineering properties of soils.
Efecto de sulfato de calcio en propiedades geotécnicas de suelos arcillososJhulianaNieva1
This document summarizes an experimental study that investigated the effect of calcium sulphate (CaSO4.2H2O) on the geotechnical properties of two clayey soils (grey clay and red clay) stabilized with lime, natural pozzolana, and their combination. The study measured changes in Atterberg limits and unconfined compressive strength with the addition of calcium sulphate over various curing periods. The results showed that lime and the lime-pozzolana combination successfully reduced plasticity and increased strength for both soils. The addition of calcium sulphate to these mixtures further decreased plasticity and provided higher strength gains.
This document summarizes an experiment that studied how the composition of molten sulfide liquids affects their ability to wet and spread across olivine, an important mantle mineral. The experiment varied the oxygen and sulfur fugacity during heating to simulate mantle conditions, and added different amounts of nickel, copper and cobalt to the molten sulfide to model natural sulfide compositions. The results showed that sulfide wetting decreased with lower oxygen fugacity and increased metal content in the sulfide. Wetting controls how sulfides distribute and migrate within cooling magmas and the mantle, influencing ore deposit formation and elemental transport.
1. The document provides an introduction to soil mechanics including definitions of soil, soil mechanics, and the three phases of soil - solids, water, and air.
2. Soil can be classified as residual soils which form in place from weathering or transported soils which are deposited by forces like water, wind, or glaciers.
3. Understanding the properties of soil is important for civil engineers to effectively use soil in construction projects and address problems related to shear failure, settlement, seepage, and dynamic loading.
Fluid inclusions in metamorphic rocks provide information about fluids present during metamorphism. Fluid inclusions form when small portions of fluid get trapped in mineral crystals during their growth. Studies of fluid inclusions in South Indian granulites show they commonly contain CO2-rich fluids. Massive/banded charnockites from this region experienced high-grade metamorphism between 5-10.5 kbars and 550-880°C, indicating burial depths of 12-35 km. The quartz in these rocks contains primary and pseudosecondary CO2-rich inclusions with densities of 1.10-1.15 g/cc, providing evidence of the presence of CO2-rich fluids
A presentation on Hydrothermal wall rock alteration with case studies on geophysical applications.
References : https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/16VSZMPMASMNVB47JdBUa_7udBk1qvK2U?usp=sharing
Mineralization of Carbon from Sewage sludge in three soils of the Argentine p...Silvana Torri
Como citar este trabajo
Torri S, Alvarez R, Lavado R. 2003. Mineralization of Carbon from Sewage sludge in three soils of the Argentine pampas. Commun. Soil Sci. and Plant Anal. (Taylor & Francis, Inc., 325 Chestnut Street, Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106) 34 (13-14): 2035-2043. ISSN (impresa): 0010-3624. ISSN (electronica): 1532-2416.
This document provides an overview of soil mechanics and its applications in civil engineering. It discusses (1) the definition and history of soil mechanics, (2) soil formation and classification, (3) physical, hydraulic, and mechanical properties of soil, (4) applications of soil mechanics such as foundation design, pavement design, and earth retaining structures, and (5) major soil deposits found in India. The document emphasizes that understanding soil properties and behavior through the principles of soil mechanics is essential for properly designing and analyzing various geotechnical engineering systems and structures.
Diagenesis refers to the physical, chemical, and biological changes that sediments undergo after deposition to form sedimentary rock. It can include compaction, cementation, replacement of minerals, and formation of new minerals. There are three main stages of diagenesis: syndiagenesis during sedimentation, anadiagenesis involving compaction and maturation, and epidigenesis during emergence before erosion. Common diagenetic processes in mudrocks include mechanical and chemical compaction, which reduce porosity, and the formation of authigenic minerals like calcite, illite, and kaolinite via replacement or precipitation. Clay minerals are important indicators in hydrocarbon exploration as they can provide information about tectonics, hydrocarbon generation
1. Fluid inclusion studies were conducted on samples from 10 wells in the Irish Porcupine Basin to determine the chronology of aqueous and oil-bearing fluids during basin evolution.
2. Three types of fluid inclusions were identified: low-salinity aqueous inclusions; monophase aqueous inclusions; and two-phase oil-bearing inclusions.
3. Oil-bearing inclusions observed in Jurassic sandstone cements and grains indicate trapping of heavier, less mature oil early during cementation and later ingress of lighter, more mature oil.
Clay swelling in oil and gas drilling poses challenges and can lead to wellbore instability. There are three mechanisms of clay swelling: intercrystalline, hydration of exchangeable cations, and osmotic. Characterization techniques include XRD, SANS, ICP-MS, FTIR, and TGA. Effective inhibitors use organic polymers or surfactants that interact favorably with clays to reduce swelling while maintaining drilling fluid properties.
Formation of lithified micritic laminae in modern marine stromatolites Omar Radwan
This study investigated the formation of lithified micritic laminae in modern marine stromatolites in the Bahamas through biogeochemical and microbial analyses. The research found that cyanobacterial photosynthesis, sulfate reduction by bacteria, and anaerobic sulfide oxidation cause calcium carbonate precipitation and formation of lithified layers, while aerobic respiration and aerobic sulfide oxidation cause calcium carbonate dissolution. Specifically, layers with the highest biomass and rates of sulfate reduction and sulfide oxidation correlated with lithified micritic horizons in the stromatolites. The study concludes that sulfur cycling driven by these microbial processes is responsible for lamination and early lithification in the Bahamian stromatolites.
This document provides lecture notes on soil mechanics from Einstein College of Engineering. It covers the objectives of the soil mechanics course, which is to provide knowledge of engineering properties of soil. The document then outlines the topics that will be covered, including introduction to soil properties, soil water and flow, stress distribution and compression, shear strength, and slope stability. It lists reference textbooks and provides an in-depth section on soil classification systems, properties, particle size distribution, consistency limits, and the Indian Standard Soil Classification System.
Magnesium isotope evidence that accretional vapour loss shapes planetary comp...Sérgio Sacani
It has long been recognized that Earth and other differentiated
planetary bodies are chemically fractionated compared to primitive,
chondritic meteorites and, by inference, the primordial disk
from which they formed. However, it is not known whether the
notable volatile depletions of planetary bodies are a consequence
of accretion1
or inherited from prior nebular fractionation2
. The
isotopic compositions of the main constituents of planetary bodies
can contribute to this debate3–6. Here we develop an analytical
approach that corrects a major cause of measurement inaccuracy
inherent in conventional methods, and show that all differentiated
bodies have isotopically heavier magnesium compositions
than chondritic meteorites. We argue that possible magnesium
isotope fractionation during condensation of the solar nebula,
core formation and silicate differentiation cannot explain these
observations. However, isotopic fractionation between liquid and
vapour, followed by vapour escape during accretionary growth of
planetesimals, generates appropriate residual compositions. Our
modelling implies that the isotopic compositions of magnesium,
silicon and iron, and the relative abundances of the major elements
of Earth and other planetary bodies, are a natural consequence of
substantial (about 40 per cent by mass) vapour loss from growing
planetesimals by this mechanism.
This document discusses clay minerals and soil structure. It begins by explaining the origin of clay minerals from the weathering of rocks by water and defines the basic units of clay minerals including silica tetrahedra and octahedral sheets. It then describes various common clay minerals like kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite, vermiculite and chlorite. The document also covers methods to identify clay minerals including x-ray diffraction and differential thermal analysis. It discusses specific surface area of clay minerals and how water interacts with clay particles and balances their charge deficiencies. Soil structure and different soil fabrics are briefly introduced.
This document provides an overview of basic soil characteristics including:
- Particle size analysis and classification of soils according to their particle sizes.
- Plasticity characteristics of fine soils including liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index.
- Common soil formations from weathering of parent rock including residual and transported soils.
- Description and classification of soils according to their material and mass characteristics using standard systems.
A white spirit spill at a factory site located in a residential area of south eastern Australia led to contamination of shallow groundwater that fed into a nearby river. The contaminated groundwater contained toluene, ethyl benzene, and xylene and n-alkanes in the C6-C36 fraction range. A funnel and gate permeable reactive barrier was designed and built, based on preliminary pilot scale tests using peat as the medium for the gate and the work conducted is presented as a case study. The technical effectiveness of the funnel and gate, over the 10 month operating period in which data was collected, indicates that peat represents an effective material for use in the gate component of funnel and gate remedial systems. The application of the funnel and gate technology represented a substantial saving to the client and was effective in preventing ongoing pollution of the nearby river. The construction of the funnel and gate system also incurred the minimum disturbance to the public access areas between the facility and the river.
Reservoir types and Reservoir characterizations; Styles of Geologic Reservoir Heterogeneity; Classification of Heterogeneity; Scales of Geologic Reservoir Heterogeneity; Factors Causing Reservoir Heterogeneity; Assessing Reservoir Heterogeneity; Diagenetic and Reservoir Quality and Heterogeneity Implications in Deltaic and Marine Sandstones ; Scales of Fluvial Reservoir Heterogeneity; Impact of Bioturbation on Reservoir Heterogeneity; Carbonate Reservoir Heterogeneity
The colloidal state refers to a two-phase system in which one material in a very finely divided state is dispersed through second phase.
Eg., Solid in liquid (Dispersion of clay in water) and Liquid in gas (Fog or clouds in atmosphere).
Clays are formed through the weathering of silica-rich rocks like granite. They require reaction time, igneous rocks, geological factors, transportation and weathering agents. There are two types of clays based on origin - residual clays form near the parent rock through chemical weathering, while sedimentary clays form farther away through sedimentary processes. The formation of clay minerals occurs primarily through three mechanisms: inheritance from the parent rock, neoformation through precipitation from solution, and transformation through chemical reactions like ion exchange. The environment of clay formation includes weathering zones, sedimentary environments, and diagenetic-hydrothermal zones.
This case study analyzed clay occurrences around Kutigi Central Bida Basin in Nigeria. Detailed field mapping identified two hills near Kutigi town containing clay deposits. Laboratory analysis of samples from the hills using X-ray diffraction found them to be composed primarily of kaolinite and quartz minerals. Kaolinite alone constituted about 43.64% of the samples, while quartz constituted around 54.55%. This study characterized the geology and mineralogical composition of clays in this region of Nigeria.
A comparative study on adsorption behavior of heavy metal elements onto soil ...Andre Zeitoun
1) The document examines the adsorption behavior of heavy metal elements from an acid solution onto common soil minerals (illite, halloysite, zeolite, goethite) over various time periods.
2) The results show that the adsorption extent of elements varies depending on the mineral type and reaction time, with Fe and As being significantly removed within an hour.
3) Overall, halloysite was found to be the most effective adsorbent, though adsorption of alkali elements did not follow predictions based on ionic radii.
Soil Colloids: Properties, Nature, Types and Significance. sources of chargesDrAnandJadhav
This document discusses properties of soil colloids and their significance. It defines soil colloids as soil particles less than 0.002 mm in size that possess colloidal properties. The key types of soil colloids discussed are layer silicate clays, iron and aluminum oxide clays, allophane, and humus. Sources of charge on colloid particles include pH-dependent charge, isomorphous substitution within the crystal lattice, and broken bonds on particle edges. The document outlines various properties of soil colloids and their importance for soil chemistry, nutrient availability, physical properties, and interactions with soil management and pollutants.
The document discusses smectites, which are 2:1 phyllosilicate clay minerals. Key points:
- Smectites have an octahedral sheet between two tetrahedral sheets and can expand greatly by absorbing water between interlayer spaces.
- They form in weathering environments and their abundance and distribution affects the formation of décollement zones in subduction zones.
- Smectite to illite transformation may be linked to seismicity as it strengthens sediments.
Metamorphic facies are groups of metamorphic rocks characterized by distinct mineral groups originating under specific pressure and temperature conditions. There are three main series: 1) high temperature and low pressure facies found in volcanic arcs and continental collisions, starting from zeolite facies and progressing through amphibolite and granulite facies. 2) high pressure and low temperature facies in subduction zones, starting from zeolite through blueschist and eclogite facies. 3) medium pressure and temperature facies during natural rock burial, beginning with zeolite and progressing through amphibolite or eclogite depending on composition. Diagrams show distinctive minerals of each facies and facies
A Comparative Study of Group Key Management in MANETIJERA Editor
A Mobile Ad-Hoc Network (MANET) is a self organized network, with no fixed infrastructure, limited
resources and limited physical security. Security in such an environment is an essential requirement. Key
management is a salient element in MANET security. It is responsible for key generation, storage, distribution,
updating, revocation, deleting, and archiving. Key management protocols are classified into symmetric,
asymmetric, group, and hybrid. Group key management is a point of interest for researchers with the growing
usage of mobile devices and the rising of multicast communication. This paper surveys different approaches in
group key management schemes. A comparative study is demonstrated in terms of reliability, computational
complexity, storage cost, communication overheads, pre-requirements, security levels, robustness,
vulnerabilities, scalability, energy and mobility. Finally, the study concludes the pros and cons of each protocol.
Stress-Strain of Hotmix Cold Laid Containing Buton Granular Asphat (BGA) with...IJERA Editor
Buton granular asphalt (BGA) is produced from natural rock asphalt. The employment of hotmix cold laid containing BGA with modifier oil base and modifier oil base can substitute hot rolled asphalt (HRA) construction in the remote and distance areas. Natural rock asphalt that deposited in Buton Island, Southeast Sulawesi in Indonesia is crushed to produce Buton granular asphalt (BGA). BGA and cold modifier were utilized to produce hot mixture that can be laid at cold temperature of 50OC to 27OC.The present study provides the information concerning the stress-strain pattern and compressive strength of hotmix cold laid containing BGA and Modifier Oil Base and Modifier Water Base at the storing and compaction time of 4 hours, 3 days and 7 days.
This document provides an overview of soil mechanics and its applications in civil engineering. It discusses (1) the definition and history of soil mechanics, (2) soil formation and classification, (3) physical, hydraulic, and mechanical properties of soil, (4) applications of soil mechanics such as foundation design, pavement design, and earth retaining structures, and (5) major soil deposits found in India. The document emphasizes that understanding soil properties and behavior through the principles of soil mechanics is essential for properly designing and analyzing various geotechnical engineering systems and structures.
Diagenesis refers to the physical, chemical, and biological changes that sediments undergo after deposition to form sedimentary rock. It can include compaction, cementation, replacement of minerals, and formation of new minerals. There are three main stages of diagenesis: syndiagenesis during sedimentation, anadiagenesis involving compaction and maturation, and epidigenesis during emergence before erosion. Common diagenetic processes in mudrocks include mechanical and chemical compaction, which reduce porosity, and the formation of authigenic minerals like calcite, illite, and kaolinite via replacement or precipitation. Clay minerals are important indicators in hydrocarbon exploration as they can provide information about tectonics, hydrocarbon generation
1. Fluid inclusion studies were conducted on samples from 10 wells in the Irish Porcupine Basin to determine the chronology of aqueous and oil-bearing fluids during basin evolution.
2. Three types of fluid inclusions were identified: low-salinity aqueous inclusions; monophase aqueous inclusions; and two-phase oil-bearing inclusions.
3. Oil-bearing inclusions observed in Jurassic sandstone cements and grains indicate trapping of heavier, less mature oil early during cementation and later ingress of lighter, more mature oil.
Clay swelling in oil and gas drilling poses challenges and can lead to wellbore instability. There are three mechanisms of clay swelling: intercrystalline, hydration of exchangeable cations, and osmotic. Characterization techniques include XRD, SANS, ICP-MS, FTIR, and TGA. Effective inhibitors use organic polymers or surfactants that interact favorably with clays to reduce swelling while maintaining drilling fluid properties.
Formation of lithified micritic laminae in modern marine stromatolites Omar Radwan
This study investigated the formation of lithified micritic laminae in modern marine stromatolites in the Bahamas through biogeochemical and microbial analyses. The research found that cyanobacterial photosynthesis, sulfate reduction by bacteria, and anaerobic sulfide oxidation cause calcium carbonate precipitation and formation of lithified layers, while aerobic respiration and aerobic sulfide oxidation cause calcium carbonate dissolution. Specifically, layers with the highest biomass and rates of sulfate reduction and sulfide oxidation correlated with lithified micritic horizons in the stromatolites. The study concludes that sulfur cycling driven by these microbial processes is responsible for lamination and early lithification in the Bahamian stromatolites.
This document provides lecture notes on soil mechanics from Einstein College of Engineering. It covers the objectives of the soil mechanics course, which is to provide knowledge of engineering properties of soil. The document then outlines the topics that will be covered, including introduction to soil properties, soil water and flow, stress distribution and compression, shear strength, and slope stability. It lists reference textbooks and provides an in-depth section on soil classification systems, properties, particle size distribution, consistency limits, and the Indian Standard Soil Classification System.
Magnesium isotope evidence that accretional vapour loss shapes planetary comp...Sérgio Sacani
It has long been recognized that Earth and other differentiated
planetary bodies are chemically fractionated compared to primitive,
chondritic meteorites and, by inference, the primordial disk
from which they formed. However, it is not known whether the
notable volatile depletions of planetary bodies are a consequence
of accretion1
or inherited from prior nebular fractionation2
. The
isotopic compositions of the main constituents of planetary bodies
can contribute to this debate3–6. Here we develop an analytical
approach that corrects a major cause of measurement inaccuracy
inherent in conventional methods, and show that all differentiated
bodies have isotopically heavier magnesium compositions
than chondritic meteorites. We argue that possible magnesium
isotope fractionation during condensation of the solar nebula,
core formation and silicate differentiation cannot explain these
observations. However, isotopic fractionation between liquid and
vapour, followed by vapour escape during accretionary growth of
planetesimals, generates appropriate residual compositions. Our
modelling implies that the isotopic compositions of magnesium,
silicon and iron, and the relative abundances of the major elements
of Earth and other planetary bodies, are a natural consequence of
substantial (about 40 per cent by mass) vapour loss from growing
planetesimals by this mechanism.
This document discusses clay minerals and soil structure. It begins by explaining the origin of clay minerals from the weathering of rocks by water and defines the basic units of clay minerals including silica tetrahedra and octahedral sheets. It then describes various common clay minerals like kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite, vermiculite and chlorite. The document also covers methods to identify clay minerals including x-ray diffraction and differential thermal analysis. It discusses specific surface area of clay minerals and how water interacts with clay particles and balances their charge deficiencies. Soil structure and different soil fabrics are briefly introduced.
This document provides an overview of basic soil characteristics including:
- Particle size analysis and classification of soils according to their particle sizes.
- Plasticity characteristics of fine soils including liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index.
- Common soil formations from weathering of parent rock including residual and transported soils.
- Description and classification of soils according to their material and mass characteristics using standard systems.
A white spirit spill at a factory site located in a residential area of south eastern Australia led to contamination of shallow groundwater that fed into a nearby river. The contaminated groundwater contained toluene, ethyl benzene, and xylene and n-alkanes in the C6-C36 fraction range. A funnel and gate permeable reactive barrier was designed and built, based on preliminary pilot scale tests using peat as the medium for the gate and the work conducted is presented as a case study. The technical effectiveness of the funnel and gate, over the 10 month operating period in which data was collected, indicates that peat represents an effective material for use in the gate component of funnel and gate remedial systems. The application of the funnel and gate technology represented a substantial saving to the client and was effective in preventing ongoing pollution of the nearby river. The construction of the funnel and gate system also incurred the minimum disturbance to the public access areas between the facility and the river.
Reservoir types and Reservoir characterizations; Styles of Geologic Reservoir Heterogeneity; Classification of Heterogeneity; Scales of Geologic Reservoir Heterogeneity; Factors Causing Reservoir Heterogeneity; Assessing Reservoir Heterogeneity; Diagenetic and Reservoir Quality and Heterogeneity Implications in Deltaic and Marine Sandstones ; Scales of Fluvial Reservoir Heterogeneity; Impact of Bioturbation on Reservoir Heterogeneity; Carbonate Reservoir Heterogeneity
The colloidal state refers to a two-phase system in which one material in a very finely divided state is dispersed through second phase.
Eg., Solid in liquid (Dispersion of clay in water) and Liquid in gas (Fog or clouds in atmosphere).
Clays are formed through the weathering of silica-rich rocks like granite. They require reaction time, igneous rocks, geological factors, transportation and weathering agents. There are two types of clays based on origin - residual clays form near the parent rock through chemical weathering, while sedimentary clays form farther away through sedimentary processes. The formation of clay minerals occurs primarily through three mechanisms: inheritance from the parent rock, neoformation through precipitation from solution, and transformation through chemical reactions like ion exchange. The environment of clay formation includes weathering zones, sedimentary environments, and diagenetic-hydrothermal zones.
This case study analyzed clay occurrences around Kutigi Central Bida Basin in Nigeria. Detailed field mapping identified two hills near Kutigi town containing clay deposits. Laboratory analysis of samples from the hills using X-ray diffraction found them to be composed primarily of kaolinite and quartz minerals. Kaolinite alone constituted about 43.64% of the samples, while quartz constituted around 54.55%. This study characterized the geology and mineralogical composition of clays in this region of Nigeria.
A comparative study on adsorption behavior of heavy metal elements onto soil ...Andre Zeitoun
1) The document examines the adsorption behavior of heavy metal elements from an acid solution onto common soil minerals (illite, halloysite, zeolite, goethite) over various time periods.
2) The results show that the adsorption extent of elements varies depending on the mineral type and reaction time, with Fe and As being significantly removed within an hour.
3) Overall, halloysite was found to be the most effective adsorbent, though adsorption of alkali elements did not follow predictions based on ionic radii.
Soil Colloids: Properties, Nature, Types and Significance. sources of chargesDrAnandJadhav
This document discusses properties of soil colloids and their significance. It defines soil colloids as soil particles less than 0.002 mm in size that possess colloidal properties. The key types of soil colloids discussed are layer silicate clays, iron and aluminum oxide clays, allophane, and humus. Sources of charge on colloid particles include pH-dependent charge, isomorphous substitution within the crystal lattice, and broken bonds on particle edges. The document outlines various properties of soil colloids and their importance for soil chemistry, nutrient availability, physical properties, and interactions with soil management and pollutants.
The document discusses smectites, which are 2:1 phyllosilicate clay minerals. Key points:
- Smectites have an octahedral sheet between two tetrahedral sheets and can expand greatly by absorbing water between interlayer spaces.
- They form in weathering environments and their abundance and distribution affects the formation of décollement zones in subduction zones.
- Smectite to illite transformation may be linked to seismicity as it strengthens sediments.
Metamorphic facies are groups of metamorphic rocks characterized by distinct mineral groups originating under specific pressure and temperature conditions. There are three main series: 1) high temperature and low pressure facies found in volcanic arcs and continental collisions, starting from zeolite facies and progressing through amphibolite and granulite facies. 2) high pressure and low temperature facies in subduction zones, starting from zeolite through blueschist and eclogite facies. 3) medium pressure and temperature facies during natural rock burial, beginning with zeolite and progressing through amphibolite or eclogite depending on composition. Diagrams show distinctive minerals of each facies and facies
A Comparative Study of Group Key Management in MANETIJERA Editor
A Mobile Ad-Hoc Network (MANET) is a self organized network, with no fixed infrastructure, limited
resources and limited physical security. Security in such an environment is an essential requirement. Key
management is a salient element in MANET security. It is responsible for key generation, storage, distribution,
updating, revocation, deleting, and archiving. Key management protocols are classified into symmetric,
asymmetric, group, and hybrid. Group key management is a point of interest for researchers with the growing
usage of mobile devices and the rising of multicast communication. This paper surveys different approaches in
group key management schemes. A comparative study is demonstrated in terms of reliability, computational
complexity, storage cost, communication overheads, pre-requirements, security levels, robustness,
vulnerabilities, scalability, energy and mobility. Finally, the study concludes the pros and cons of each protocol.
Stress-Strain of Hotmix Cold Laid Containing Buton Granular Asphat (BGA) with...IJERA Editor
Buton granular asphalt (BGA) is produced from natural rock asphalt. The employment of hotmix cold laid containing BGA with modifier oil base and modifier oil base can substitute hot rolled asphalt (HRA) construction in the remote and distance areas. Natural rock asphalt that deposited in Buton Island, Southeast Sulawesi in Indonesia is crushed to produce Buton granular asphalt (BGA). BGA and cold modifier were utilized to produce hot mixture that can be laid at cold temperature of 50OC to 27OC.The present study provides the information concerning the stress-strain pattern and compressive strength of hotmix cold laid containing BGA and Modifier Oil Base and Modifier Water Base at the storing and compaction time of 4 hours, 3 days and 7 days.
Research on the Model of Sight Distance Triangle in Mountain HighwayIntersect...IJERA Editor
This document presents research on establishing sight distance triangle models for mountain highway intersections. It analyzes the visual characteristics of drivers and driving characteristics at mountain highway intersections. Due to complex terrain, stopping sight distance is difficult to meet at intersections, making them accident-prone. The research establishes models to calculate safe stopping sight distance for uncontrolled intersections and intersections with minor roads controlled by stop signs. Sight distance triangle models are also developed based on the stopping sight distance models and geometric formulas. The models provide a theoretical basis for designing mountain highway intersections.
Literature Review of the Application of Conductive Carbon Fiber-graphite Conc...IJERA Editor
The technical features of conductive carbon fiber-graphite concrete are reviewed in this paper, and its generation, development and the current technology condition are also introduced. According to the researches of conductive carbon fiber-graphite concrete material in recent years, the paper presents its application in all kinds of aspects especially floor heating engineering in which its advantages can be fully used. Finally, the paper summarized the developing trend of carbon fiber-graphite conductive concrete.
On The Number of Representations of a Positive Integer By Certain Binary Quad...IJERA Editor
It is well known how to find the formulae for the number of representations of positive integers by the positive
binary quadratic forms which belong to one-class genera. In this paper we obtain the formulae for the number of
representations by certain binary forms with discriminants –80 and –128 belonging to the genera having two
classes.
Evaluation of IEEE 57 Bus System for Optimal Power Flow AnalysisIJERA Editor
The analysis of load flow in a network under steady state operation is challenging task especially subjected to
inequality constraints in which the system operates. No doubt, that the load flow system analysis is an important
aspect for power system analysis and design. The basic analysis technique for power flow is to find different
parameters including magnitude and phase angle of voltage at each bus with active and reactive power flows in
each transmission lines. Thus, load flow analysis is important numerical analysis for any power system. In this
regard, this experiment is studied to evaluate IEEE 57 bus system for optimal flow analysis.
Design and Analysis of the Effect of a Modified Valve with Helical Guideways ...IJERA Editor
The in-cylinder flow of an Internal Combustion Engine(ICE) has drawn much attention of the automotive
researchers and scientists in the present time. A good swirl promotes fast combustion and improves the
efficiency. Based upon this concept, this paper describes the results of a study conducted to investigate the
effects of a “modified valve with helical guide ways” on the performance of combustion. Small internal
combustion engine is designed to be part of a very efficient vehicle to enter a consumption marathon. The
engine should run at low speeds, in order to have low mechanical losses but combustion should be fast, enabling
good combustion efficiency. Therefore, high turbulence is required prior to combustion within the cylinder,
hence the concept of swirl is introduced and its effect on the combustion within the cylinder has been
ascertained in the present work. Assessment of the effect of swirl on combustion performance within the
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Study of the effect of Illite and Kaolinite on low salinity water injection
1. Sina Rezaei-Gomari et al. Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Applications www.ijera.com
ISSN: 2248-9622, Vol. 5, Issue 7, (Part - 3) July 2015, pp.16-22
www.ijera.com 16|P a g e
Study of the effect of Illite and Kaolinite on low salinity water
injection
Sina Rezaei-Gomari1,*
and Andrés Delgado Andrade1
, Bahram Soltani2
1
School of Science and Engineering, University of Teesside, Middlesbrough TS1 3BA-United Kingdom
2
Petroleum University of Technology, Ahvaz, Iran
Abstract:
Low salinity water flooding as an Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Technique refers to the injection of brine with
a lower salt content or ionic strength into an oil reservoir. Although the mechanisms have not yet been verified,
the solution and surface chemistry as well as rock/fluid interactions have important roles that can be attributed to
reservoir minerals being sensitive to small changes in solution properties.
Among the proposed mechanisms, the clay content of rock and type of clay has been of significant interest in
shedding light on the low salinity water flooding process. In this paper, two clay types (illite and kaolinite) have
been selected to investigate the individual contribution of each on the rock surface characterization andlow
salinity water flooding performance.
The results from contact angle measurement on the oil-wet calcite by low salinity water at room temperature
show that the presence of low content of illite in the rock materials, in contrast to the kaolinite, reduces the
contact angle significantly. This observation demonstrates that the low salinity water flooding performance
depends strongly on the type of clay not on the amount of clay.
I. INTRODUCTION
Due to the low costs as well as less harmful
environmental impact, low salinity injection has great
potential to improve oil recovery. Jerauld et al. (2008)
showed that low salinity injection can increase the
water flood performance from 5% to 38%. However,
the biggest challenge of low salinity injection is to
understand how this process works in the oil
production process. It has also been demonstrated
that the presence of clay minerals in the sedimentary
rocks has an important impact on wettability. As a
result of the adsorption of resins and as phaltenic
species known as polar components on the rock
surfaces, most oil reservoirs andespecially carbonate
reservoirs are oil-wet.
Studies have shown that clay minerals such as
kaolinite, chlorite, and smectite contribute to the
wetting state of reservoir rock for being preferentially
oil-wet or water-wet(Skrettingland et al., 2011).
Therefore, it is imperative to know how and to what
extent these types of clay minerals affect the
wettability.
It has been proposed that lowering the concentration
of salt ions in the injection brine can increase the oil
recovery. This is reflected by the reduction of the
contact angle from 48 degrees to 29 degrees for a
carbonate rock caused byareduction of salinity from
50,000ppm to 10,000ppm in injection brine
(Romanuka et al., 2012).
The change in contact angle is attributed to the
cationic exchange process of low salinity water with
the clay mineral. In the low salinity water-flooding
(LSW) divalent ions such as Ca++
and Mg++
are
adsorbedby the clay minerals; resulting in a
modification of the wettability (Dang et al., 2013).
Boussour et al (2009) proposed that polar components
are attached to the negatives clay minerals in the
reservoir by cation exchange; however, when low
salinity water is injected, the adsorbed polar
components are substituted by the cations present in
the low salinity brine and the reservoir will became
more water-wet. Berg et al. (2010) proposed that for
sandstone rock the cation exchange between the oil
and the reservoir is present; however, the double layer
expansion is the most important factor which governs
the wettabilityalteration.
The objective of this paper is to investigate the
individual performance of clay materials (type and
content of clay) on the carbonate rock surface
wettability alteration by three different brines, from
high to low salinity concentration. The clays, which
are used in this investigation, are illite and kaolinite.
II. BACKGROUND ON ROCK SURFACE
CHARACTERIZATION
Wettability is defined as the preference of a
liquid to cover a solid surface. Reservoir’s wettability
is an important factor used to calculate oil recovery
RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS
2. Sina Rezaei-Gomari et al. Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Applications www.ijera.com
ISSN: 2248-9622, Vol. 5, Issue 7, (Part - 3) July 2015, pp.16-22
www.ijera.com 17|P a g e
efficiency and residual oil saturation through water
injection. Nasralla et al. (2011) suggested that
wettability is an imperative aspect affecting water and
oil distribution in the reservoir. According to their
research, the wetting phase of the rock is determined
by the following factors: oil composition, the
chemistry of the rock surface and the characteristics
of the aqueous phase.
The contribution of otherfactors such as temperature,
pressure, as well as injected fluids may result in
wettability alteration of rock surfaces.Hjelmeland and
Larrondo (1986) proposed that temperature affects the
interfacial forces between oil/water; water/rock and
oil/rock which in turn results in a wettability
alteration. Hamouda and Rezaei Gomari (2006)
studied the effect of the temperature on carbonate
rock. Their experiments showed that when the
temperature increases, the contact angle decreases.
The summary of work performed by Hamouda and
Rezaei Gomari is presented in Figure 1. As it can be
seen from the three presented trend lines, for all three
tests the trend-lines were polynomial (second order)
and theR-squared values were higher than 0.99 which
means that the variation of the contact angle versus
the temperature might follow a polynomial function.
In addition to temperature, the ions concentration of
the injected water can alter the rock surface
wettability significantly. Nasralla et al (2011) have
studied the effect of ions using aquifer water at
elevated temperatures. Three brine compositions
having 10 fold differences in total dissolved salt are
examined by the researcher; table 1 shows the ion
concentration of the brines. The experiments were
developed with a pressure equal to 1000 psi and three
different temperatures of 60 0
C, 100 0
C and 121 0
C.
Figure 2 shows how the contact angle changed from
its original value when aquifer water was injected.
Their study showed that the highest reduction in the
contact angle was obtained for a system owing
highest temperature with lowest salinity, hence the
rock wetting state altered towards more water-wet.
Surface potential can be utilized to understand the
rock surface characterization. Components in the
crude oil adsorb on the reservoir rock; this absorption
affects the rock wettability, relative fluid
permeability, electrical properties and recovery
efficiency (Kakadjian et al 2007). The surface
potential between the solid and the fluid interface is
discussed by Street and Wang (1966) based on the
Cationic Exchange Capacity (CEC)theory.
The concept of zeta potential has been used by
Alotaibi et al. (2011) to explain the rock surface
charge and zero point charge for kaolinite, illite and
chlorite. The experiments were developed to study the
influence of seawater, aquifer water and deionized
water on different clays and sandstone at 25 0
C.
According to the experiments performed by Alotaibi
et al., kaolinite, illite and chlorite in all solutions
present anegative charge except forchlorite which
shows a positive charge in the presence of seawater.
The results can be seen in figure 3.
Clay minerals, which are inherently present in the
reservoir rock, are studied to determine the reservoir
quality, the hydrocarbon emplacement time and the
petroleum system (Jiang, 2012).
Kaolinite is the most common mineral in the kaolin
group. The chemical composition of the kaolinite is
Al2 Si2 O5 (OH)4.Low-defect kaolinite and high-defect
kaolinite are the two types of kaolinite; low-defect
kaolinite has a low crystal structure defect and high-
defect kaolinite has an abundant structural defect
(Kogel et al, 2002). In general, kaolinite has a large
concentration of hydroxyl groups on its surface. Due
to the hydroxyl groups, kaolinite is susceptible to
contact with asphaltenes (Bantignies et al. 1997). In
oil-saturatedsandstone, the presence of kaolinitein the
rock will produce an oil-wet preference for the
reservoir (Lebedeva et al, 2010).
Illite is a part of the mica group and it is produced by
the smectite dehydration, changing from
montmorillonite to beidellite to illite (Galimberti,
2011). The chemical composition of the illiteis Mx
(Si, Al)8 (Al, Fe, Mg)4 O20 (OH)4 where M is the
interlayer cation and x is the layer charge (Sposito,
2008). In oil-saturated sandstone, this type of clay is
characteristically preferentially wetted by water. This
hydrophilic characteristic of the illite is the result of
the presence of cations in the clay surface (Bantignies
et al. 1997).
III. METHODOLOGY
Materials: The solids used in this study were:
calcium carbonate, two different types of clay (illite
and kaolinite), stearic acid and three different brine
compositions. Calcium carbonate was supplied by
BDH chemical in the form of powder with the purity
of 98%. No impuritiesreported with the supplied
kaolinite while illite consisted of silicon dioxide,
aluminium (III) and calcium oxide. Stearic acid
(C18H36O2) which is represented as a dissolved acidic
species in the model oil(n-decane); has a molecular
weight of 284.48 gr/molwith apurity of 95%. The
selected salts utilized to make the synthetic brine are
sodium chloride, magnesium chloride and sodium
sulphate.
The purity of supplied n-decane (C10H22) by Sigma-
Aldrich Company was higher than 95%.
Rock sample preparation: Table 2 presents the
mixture characteristics of different powder samples
(P1 to P6) in this study. A top hot plate stirrer was
utilized to blend the distilled water, the calcium
carbonate and the illite or the kaolinite. The stirring
was developed with medium rotation agitation (45
rpm/min) and the stirring time was approximately 2
hours. The suspension liquid was filtered and then
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dried at 105 0
C for 24 hoursin the oven. The
wettability of dried samples was modified to oil-wet
using 0.001 M stearic acid in n-decane. 25g of
powderwas added for every 100 ml of acidic oil
model.
Brine preparation: Table 3 shows the three synthetic
brine compositions used in this work (B1 to B3). B1
represents the main salt components of sea water
followed by B2 and B3. The salt content of brine
compositions for B1 and B2 was lowered
significantly (about 10 and 100 folds respectively) to
be able to investigate the low salinity effects on
wettability of carbonate rocks in the presence of clay
content.
Contact anglemeasurement: The contact angle
measurements were executed on the different
samples. The method utilized to determine the contact
angle was air water and powder surface interface.
This method provides a fast way to measure the
contact angle. A small amount of powder, around 1 to
2 grams, is placed and squished onto a microscope
slide. A droplet of distilled water is placed onto the
powder surface. A picture is taken to measure the
contact angle on the computer. For each sample, the
contact angle was measured three times to ensure
reaching the precise value. It is important to point out
that the contact angle was calculated from a picture
on a computer from each measurement and the result
could be affected by the resolution of the picture and
also the visual accuracy of the human eye.
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Clay effect: The presence of clay in the lattice of
carbonate rocks and its effect on wettability was
studied using contact angle measurements on treated
calcite powder. The sample compositions are given in
table 2. As it can be seen the amount of clay is
investigated individually and clay content is increased
systematically from 5% to 15 %.
Results show that the clay concentration,
depending on the type of clay, has different effects
onthe wetting state of calcium carbonate. Figure 4
shows a comparison between the measured contact
angle on the treated calcium carbonate in the presence
of different concentrations of illite and kaolinite. In
the case of illite, when the percentage of added clay
to the calcite increases from 10 % to 30 % the
measured contact angle on the treated calcite reduces
from 1400
to 1090
respectively. This behavior can be
related to the hydrophilic characteristic of the illite.
The hydrophilic characteristic of illiteis the result of
the presence of cations in the illite surface. The
cations make the calcium carbonate less prone to
becomingoil-wet within the treatment process using
model oil.In fact the ability of Ca2+
to adsorb
carboxylic ions reduces in the presence of received
cations from illite.
In the case of kaolinite, as illustrated in Figure 4,
insignificant changes in contact angle measurements
were observed when increasing the kaolinite
concentration. This is an interesting observation since
kaolinite consists of hydroxyl groups (R-OH) which
could contribute to the wetting state; however, no
effect was recorded with the studied concentration.
Moreover, the results presented in Figure 4,
demonstrate that samples mixed with kaolinite havea
higher contact angle than illite. From these
observations, it can be concluded that reservoirs with
higher concentration of kaolinite are more likely to
beoil-wet than reservoirs with low kaolinite.
However, reservoirs containing illite may be less
disposedtowards being oil-wet. To reach a clear
conclusion, these results would require further field
testing and analysis.
Low salinity effect in the presence of clay:The effect
of water composition on wettability of carbonate
rocks in the presence of 10% concentration of clay
was studied by measuring the contact angle. The
study performed using three brine compositions of
high salinity (B1), medium salinity (B2) and low
salinity (B3) as presented in Table 3. The total
dissolved salt (TDS) for B1, B2 and B3 are 22,716
mg/l, 2,304 mg/l and 230.4 mg/l respectively. The
results are shown in Figures 5 and 6.
As it is demonstrated in these figures, suppressing the
salt content reduces the measured contact anglesfor
both clay types at 10% concentration in the calcium
carbonate. The post treating of modified calcite
owing10% illite with high salinity brine (B1) reduced
the contact angle from 144 to 52 degrees while in
thecase of kaolinite, the contact angle drops down
from 138 to 66.
These results indicate that the presence of salt
modifies the oil-wet calcite surface to water-wet.
However, the decrease in contact angle and hence the
alterationto water-wetness can be greater if the
salinity of the water isdecreased further. This is
illustrated in Figure 5 where the measured contact
angle on post treated modified calcite surfaces owing
10% illite and 10% kaolinite concentration by B2
(salinity lowered about 10 folds compared to B1) is
37 and 46 degrees, respectively. Further reduction of
salinity to about 100 folds compared to B1,reducesthe
contact angle to 31 and 32 degrees for post treated
samples by B3. The measured contact angles resulting
from the low salinity water can be translated
intoastrongly water-wet system.
Figure 6, shows the total change in the measured
contact angles for the three studied brine
compositions. As it can be seen, the highest variation
in the contact angle was obtained for the post treated
modified calcium carbonate mixed with 10%
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ISSN: 2248-9622, Vol. 5, Issue 7, (Part - 3) July 2015, pp.16-22
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kaolinite by B3 which clearly indicates the effect of
low salinity in wettability alteration of carbonate
rocks.
The comparison between calcium carbonate mixed
with 10 % kaolinite and 10% illite from figure
5shows that the presence of 10% kaolinite results in a
higher contact angle than the sample with 10% illite.
However, figure6shows that the sample with 10%
kaolinite has higher variation in the contact angle than
the illite when they were treated with lowest salinity
water (B3). This illustrates that the kaolinite could be
more easily modified by low salinity brine than the
illite in a calcium carbonate system.
V. CONCLUSIONS
1. Type of clay and its concentration have a
significant effect on wettability alteration of
carbonate rocks.
2. The presence of illitein the calcite powder
increases the water-wetness of the calcite surface
which is attributed to the hydrophilic
characteristic of the illite. However, the kaolinite
did not produce a significant change in the
calcium carbonate wettability when this clay
concentration increased.
3. The results showed that lowering salt
concentration in the synthetic brine results in a
more water-wet system. The strong alteration
towards water-wetness reported from modified
calcium carbonate mixes with 10% kaolinite
treated with the lowest salinity concentration.
4. The higher rate of the contact angle alteration in
10% kaolinite compared to 10% illite suggests
that the kaolinite could be more sensitive to be
modified by low salinity brine than the illite in a
calcium carbonate system.
ACKNOWLEGMENT
The author would like to offer sincere thanksto
the laboratory technicians at Teesside University’s
Chemical Departmentfor theuse of the facilities and
the considerable assistance offered during the
execution of this project.
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Figure 1: Effect of temperature on contact angle on modified water pre-wet calcite surface aged for 24 hrs in a
0.01M stearic acid in n-decane (Hamouda and RezaeiGomari, 2006).
Table 1: Chemical composition of the seawater (Nasralla and Nasr-El-Din, 2011).
Ions
Aquifer water
(ppm)
10% Aquifer
Water (ppm)
Na+
1,504 150.4
Ca2+
392 39.2
Mg2+
66 6.6
Sr2+
5 0.5
Cl-
2577 257.7
HCO3-
192 19.2
SO4
2-
700 70.0
Total ppm 5,436 543.6
Table 2: Samples composition.
Samples elements P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
Distilled water 200 ml 200 ml 200 ml 200 ml 200 ml 200 ml
Calcium Carbonate 45g 45g 40g 40g 35g 35g
Illite 5g - 10g - 15g -
Kaolinite - 5g - 10g - 15g
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Contactangle(degree)
Temperature (C)
Test 1
Test 2
Test 3
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www.ijera.com 21|P a g e
Figure 2:Effect of salinity and temperature on contact angle measurements at 1000 psi (Nasralla and Nasr-El-
Din, 2011).
Figure 3: Zeta potential variation for different clays and sandstone (Alotaibi et al. 2011).
Table 3: Composition of studied synthetic brines.
Samples elements B1 B2 B3
Distilled water 1,000 ml 1,000 ml 1,000 ml
Sodium chloride 16,877 mg 1,504 mg 150.4 mg
Magnesium chloride 2,279 mg 100 mg 10.0 mg
Sodium sulphate 3,560 mg 700 mg 70 mg
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Formation Brine Aquifer water 10% Aquifer water
Contactangle(degree)
Temperature (C)
60
100
121
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
Bereasandstone Scoitosandstone Kaolinite Chlorite Illie
ZetaPotential(mV)
De-ionized water
Aquifer water
Seawater
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Figure 4: Effect of clay type and its concentration on contact angles for modified calcite surfaces using model
oil.
Figure 5: Effect of salinity on contact angle measurements on modified calcite surface in presence of illite and
kaolinite.
Figure 6:∆Contact angle measurements on calcium carbonate with 10% of illite or kaolinite treated with
different synthetic brines. The mixture of calcium carbonate with clay was pre-wetted with model oil.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
0 10 20 30 40
ContactAngle(degree)
Clay Concetration (%)
Illite
Kaolinite
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Distilled
water
B1 B2 B3
ContactAngle(degree)
Liquid phase
Illite 10%
Kaolinite 10%
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
B1 B2 B3
∆ContactAngle(degree)
Brines
Illite 10%
Kaolinite 10%