The document summarizes key aspects of the central nervous system. It describes the protective structures of the brain including the cranium, meninges and cerebrospinal fluid. It then outlines the major regions of the brain - cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem and cerebellum - and provides details about their structure and function. It also discusses the spinal cord, its protective coverings, gray and white matter structure, and ascending and descending tracts.
The document summarizes the anatomy of the skull base. It describes the three cranial fossae - anterior, middle, and posterior. Each fossa is bounded by specific bones and contains important structures. Foramina and fissures transmitting nerves and vessels are located within the bones of each fossa. Clinical relevance is discussed for fractures of the anterior skull base, pituitary surgery involving the middle fossa, and cerebellar tonsillar herniation through the foramen magnum in the posterior fossa.
The thalamus is a paired symmetrical structure located in the center of the brain that relays sensory and motor signals between the brainstem and cerebral cortex. It is divided into several nuclei that have distinct connections and functions. The document provides detailed information on the anatomy, physiology, functional organization and clinical syndromes associated with lesions of different thalamic nuclei. Key points include a description of the gross anatomy and location of the thalamus, its blood supply, the nuclei and their connections, and syndromes associated with infarcts in the posterolateral and medial thalamic territories.
Postural reflexes help maintain an upright and balanced body position during both static and dynamic activities. They involve reflex arcs with receptors in the eyes, vestibular system and proprioceptors, integrating centers in the brainstem and spinal cord, and motor neurons activating skeletal muscles. There are two types of postural reflexes - static reflexes which adjust for gravitational displacements, and statokinetic reflexes which aid balance during voluntary movement. Important static reflexes include the stretch reflex, tonic labyrinthine reflex and tonic neck reflex.
The pons lies between the medulla oblongata and midbrain, connecting them. It contains motor and sensory nuclei for cranial nerves 5-8 and helps transmit signals between the cerebellum and cerebral cortex. The pons has anterior and posterior surfaces and contains fibers, nuclei, and tracts that process sensory information and coordinate motor functions. Damage to different areas can cause deficits like hemiplegia, hearing loss, or facial paralysis.
The document describes several muscles that act on the foot and ankle. It discusses the peroneal muscles (peroneus longus, brevis and tertius) which are located on the lateral or outer side of the lower leg and evert or pronate the foot. It also describes the tibialis anterior, tibialis posterior, flexor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus and extensor hallucis longus which are located on the medial or inner side of the lower leg and invert or supinate the foot. Each muscle's origin, insertion, function and action on the foot and ankle are provided.
The hip joint is a ball-and-socket synovial joint between the femoral head and acetabulum. It allows for flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and medial/lateral rotation. The joint is supported by strong ligaments like the iliofemoral ligament and surrounded by a fibrous capsule. It receives its blood supply from branches of the femoral, obturator, superior and inferior gluteal arteries. Nerve innervation is provided by branches of the femoral, obturator, and superior gluteal nerves.
The thalamus is a paired, oval structure located in the diencephalon that serves as a relay center for sensory and motor signals to and from the cerebral cortex. It is divided into several nuclei that process different sensory modalities. The thalamus receives input from various areas and projects to specific regions of the cortex. Damage to certain thalamic nuclei can disrupt motor control, sensory processing, and cause syndromes like thalamic pain. Surgical procedures targeting thalamic nuclei have been used to treat chronic pain conditions.
The document provides an overview of the anatomy of the spine. It discusses the conceptual overview including the functions and components of the spine. It describes the regional anatomy including the intervertebral discs, ligaments, muscles and fascia of the back. It also discusses the blood supply, lymph drainage and surface anatomy as it relates to the spine. Key features include the long vertebral column and short spinal cord, as well as the intervertebral foramina and spinal nerves.
The document summarizes the anatomy of the skull base. It describes the three cranial fossae - anterior, middle, and posterior. Each fossa is bounded by specific bones and contains important structures. Foramina and fissures transmitting nerves and vessels are located within the bones of each fossa. Clinical relevance is discussed for fractures of the anterior skull base, pituitary surgery involving the middle fossa, and cerebellar tonsillar herniation through the foramen magnum in the posterior fossa.
The thalamus is a paired symmetrical structure located in the center of the brain that relays sensory and motor signals between the brainstem and cerebral cortex. It is divided into several nuclei that have distinct connections and functions. The document provides detailed information on the anatomy, physiology, functional organization and clinical syndromes associated with lesions of different thalamic nuclei. Key points include a description of the gross anatomy and location of the thalamus, its blood supply, the nuclei and their connections, and syndromes associated with infarcts in the posterolateral and medial thalamic territories.
Postural reflexes help maintain an upright and balanced body position during both static and dynamic activities. They involve reflex arcs with receptors in the eyes, vestibular system and proprioceptors, integrating centers in the brainstem and spinal cord, and motor neurons activating skeletal muscles. There are two types of postural reflexes - static reflexes which adjust for gravitational displacements, and statokinetic reflexes which aid balance during voluntary movement. Important static reflexes include the stretch reflex, tonic labyrinthine reflex and tonic neck reflex.
The pons lies between the medulla oblongata and midbrain, connecting them. It contains motor and sensory nuclei for cranial nerves 5-8 and helps transmit signals between the cerebellum and cerebral cortex. The pons has anterior and posterior surfaces and contains fibers, nuclei, and tracts that process sensory information and coordinate motor functions. Damage to different areas can cause deficits like hemiplegia, hearing loss, or facial paralysis.
The document describes several muscles that act on the foot and ankle. It discusses the peroneal muscles (peroneus longus, brevis and tertius) which are located on the lateral or outer side of the lower leg and evert or pronate the foot. It also describes the tibialis anterior, tibialis posterior, flexor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus and extensor hallucis longus which are located on the medial or inner side of the lower leg and invert or supinate the foot. Each muscle's origin, insertion, function and action on the foot and ankle are provided.
The hip joint is a ball-and-socket synovial joint between the femoral head and acetabulum. It allows for flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and medial/lateral rotation. The joint is supported by strong ligaments like the iliofemoral ligament and surrounded by a fibrous capsule. It receives its blood supply from branches of the femoral, obturator, superior and inferior gluteal arteries. Nerve innervation is provided by branches of the femoral, obturator, and superior gluteal nerves.
The thalamus is a paired, oval structure located in the diencephalon that serves as a relay center for sensory and motor signals to and from the cerebral cortex. It is divided into several nuclei that process different sensory modalities. The thalamus receives input from various areas and projects to specific regions of the cortex. Damage to certain thalamic nuclei can disrupt motor control, sensory processing, and cause syndromes like thalamic pain. Surgical procedures targeting thalamic nuclei have been used to treat chronic pain conditions.
The document provides an overview of the anatomy of the spine. It discusses the conceptual overview including the functions and components of the spine. It describes the regional anatomy including the intervertebral discs, ligaments, muscles and fascia of the back. It also discusses the blood supply, lymph drainage and surface anatomy as it relates to the spine. Key features include the long vertebral column and short spinal cord, as well as the intervertebral foramina and spinal nerves.
This document provides an introduction to human anatomy, including definitions, subdivisions, and key terminology. It defines anatomy as the study of body structures and their relationships. The main subdivisions covered are gross/cadaveric anatomy, microscopic anatomy, developmental anatomy, and specialized branches. The document also outlines important anatomical terminology for positions, directions, planes, and movements of the body and its parts.
The brachial plexus is formed by the ventral rami of cervical spinal nerves C5-T1 and provides motor and sensory innervation to the upper limbs. It is located in the neck and armpit regions. The brachial plexus consists of roots, trunks, divisions, cords, and branches. Notable branches include the musculocutaneous, median, ulnar, radial, and axillary nerves, which innervate specific muscles and skin areas of the arm. Damage to the brachial plexus can impair function of the arms.
The document discusses the anatomy and functions of costal cartilage and ribs. It describes the structure of costal cartilage, including its surfaces, borders and extremities. It also discusses the structure of ribs, including the head, neck, body, angle and tubercle. The document outlines the types of ribs and their attachments. It explains that costal cartilage and ribs help protect organs and allow for expansion of the thoracic cavity during breathing. Common injuries to costal cartilage and ribs like fractures and cartilage separation are also summarized.
This document discusses the axial musculature of the body. It is divided into several sections that describe the major muscle groups of the axial skeleton including the muscles of the head and neck, vertebral column, thorax, and abdomen. Key muscle groups are the extraocular muscles that control eye movement, muscles of mastication like the masseter and temporalis, pharyngeal muscles like the constrictors, and abdominal muscles like the rectus abdominis. Diagrams and tables are provided to illustrate the origins, insertions and actions of the main axial muscles.
The brainstem is located between the cerebrum and spinal cord. It consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The midbrain connects the pons and cerebrum and contains the superior and inferior colliculi. The pons connects to the cerebellum via peduncles and contains pontine nuclei and cranial nerve nuclei. The medulla oblongata connects to the spinal cord and contains cranial nerve nuclei, the inferior olives, and tracts such as the gracile and cuneate fasciculi.
The document summarizes the major anatomical features of the cerebral hemispheres. It describes how the cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres and four lobes. It defines sulci as small grooves dividing gyri (elevated ridges) and fissures as deep grooves dividing large brain regions. It lists the major sulci and fissures that divide the lobes, including the central sulcus, longitudinal fissure, transverse fissure, and sylvian fissure. The four lobes of the brain are identified as the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes.
The document summarizes the key bones and structures of the human skeleton. It describes the 7 cervical vertebrae and characteristics of the atlas and axis. It then discusses the 12 thoracic vertebrae, 5 lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx. The thoracic cage is made up of thoracic vertebrae, ribs, sternum and costal cartilages. The appendicular skeleton includes the pectoral girdles of the clavicles and scapulae and the pelvic girdle.
This document discusses the muscles and nerves of the back. It describes the cutaneous innervation and blood supply of the back skin, noting the spinal nerve roots and arteries involved. It then outlines the two layers of back muscles that act on the upper limbs, including the trapezius, latissimus dorsi, levator scapulae, and rhomboid major and minor. For each muscle, it provides details on origin, insertion, nerve supply, and main actions. Finally, it briefly describes the spinal part of the accessory nerve and its involvement in innervating the trapezius muscle.
This document provides an overview of the muscular system chapter in a textbook. It discusses the organization of muscles in the body, their functions, and connective tissues. It also describes specific muscle groups like the muscles of the head and neck, trunk, shoulder, and hip and lower limb. Diagrams show the muscles and their attachments, shapes, actions, and innervation. The summary focuses on key muscle groups like the muscles of mastication, swallowing, respiration, and the shoulder.
The cerebellum is located in the posterior cranial fossa. It has three lobes - the anterior, posterior and flocculonodular lobes. It receives inputs from various parts of the brain and spinal cord via afferent pathways and sends outputs to motor areas of the brain via efferent pathways. The cerebellum plays key roles in motor control such as regulation of muscle tone and coordination of skilled voluntary movements, control of equilibrium and learning of new motor skills. Dysfunction of the cerebellum results in disturbances of posture, ataxia and intention tremors which can be assessed using clinical tests.
The document discusses physiology related to human balance and equilibrium. It defines static and dynamic equilibrium and describes the key systems and structures involved in maintaining balance, including the vestibular system, cerebellum, and their interconnections. The cerebellum coordinates movement and balance through three main sections. The vestibular system detects head movement through five receptor organs in each inner ear and sends signals to the brainstem and cerebellum through the vestibular nerve and nuclei.
1) Muscle tone is a state of partial contraction of resting muscle that maintains body posture through continuous motor impulses from reflexes.
2) Muscle spindles are stretch receptors that provide sensory feedback on muscle length and rate of stretch. Their afferents signal to the CNS and regulate motor neuron activity.
3) Spasticity results from loss of supraspinal control over reflexes after upper motor neuron injury, causing velocity-dependent increases in tonic stretch reflexes and impaired voluntary movement.
This document discusses the different types of muscle tissue, including skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. It focuses on the structure and function of skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscle is made up of parallel bundles of long multinucleated fibers that produce skeletal movement. Each muscle fiber is an individual muscle cell surrounded by the sarcolemma membrane with multiple oval nuclei placed peripherally. Skeletal muscle is connected to bone via tough tendons composed of dense collagen fibers. Fascia layers like the epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium surround bundles and individual fibers of muscle.
The diencephalon consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus. The thalamus relays sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex and is critical for sensory processing. The hypothalamus regulates autonomic functions like temperature, hunger, and circadian rhythms. It also controls the pituitary gland and emotional responses. The epithalamus includes the pineal gland which regulates melatonin secretion and sleep cycles.
The document provides an overview of the external morphology of the telencephalon. It discusses brain orientation and landmarks, the structure and location of the ventricles and cerebral hemispheres, and the four major lobes of the brain - frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. It also summarizes the primary motor and sensory cortices, including Brodmann areas, homunculi, and associated functions. Finally, it briefly outlines the structure and roles of white matter tracts, basal ganglia, and other deep gray matter structures in the telencephalon.
This document provides an overview of the surface anatomy of the upper limb. It begins by outlining the objectives of being able to palpate bony prominences, muscles, tendons, arteries, and veins. Surface anatomy is then defined as examining external body shapes and markings as they relate to deeper structures. The document then describes in detail the surface landmarks that can be palpated in the clavicle, shoulder, arm, elbow, forearm, wrist, hand, axilla, and arterial patterns.
This document provides an overview of the appendicular skeleton, which includes the pectoral girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs. It discusses the individual bones that make up these areas, including the clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges of the upper limb. For the lower limb it discusses the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges. It also notes differences between the male and female pelvis. The document contains diagrams labeling the bones and their features.
The reticular formation is a network of neurons located in the brainstem that serves important functions. It extends from the spinal cord up through the midbrain. The reticular formation receives input from various areas of the brain and spinal cord and sends output to many regions including the thalamus and cerebral cortex. It is involved in arousal, motor control, sensory processing, sleep-wake cycles and other vital functions through the ascending and descending reticular activating systems. Damage to or disruption of the reticular formation can impact consciousness, muscle tone, learning, and circadian rhythms.
The document provides an overview of the main anatomical divisions and structures of the human brain. It discusses that the brain can be divided into three main divisions - the forebrain (cerebrum), midbrain, and hindbrain. The cerebrum is the largest part and can be further divided into four lobes. The brain stem connects the forebrain and hindbrain and contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla. The cerebellum is located beneath the tentorium cerebelli and coordinates muscle movements and balance.
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is protected by three layers of tissue called meninges and surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid. It contains four interconnected ventricles that produce cerebrospinal fluid. The brain is divided into the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The forebrain contains the cerebrum and limbic system. The cerebrum is made up of grey matter and white matter and is involved in voluntary movement and complex functions. The spinal cord carries signals between the brain and body and contains 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
The document provides an overview of cerebrum anatomy. It discusses that the cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is divided into two hemispheres. It describes the lobes of the cerebrum including the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. It also discusses the internal structures of the cerebrum including the cerebral cortex, ventricles, basal ganglia, and white matter tracts.
This document provides an introduction to human anatomy, including definitions, subdivisions, and key terminology. It defines anatomy as the study of body structures and their relationships. The main subdivisions covered are gross/cadaveric anatomy, microscopic anatomy, developmental anatomy, and specialized branches. The document also outlines important anatomical terminology for positions, directions, planes, and movements of the body and its parts.
The brachial plexus is formed by the ventral rami of cervical spinal nerves C5-T1 and provides motor and sensory innervation to the upper limbs. It is located in the neck and armpit regions. The brachial plexus consists of roots, trunks, divisions, cords, and branches. Notable branches include the musculocutaneous, median, ulnar, radial, and axillary nerves, which innervate specific muscles and skin areas of the arm. Damage to the brachial plexus can impair function of the arms.
The document discusses the anatomy and functions of costal cartilage and ribs. It describes the structure of costal cartilage, including its surfaces, borders and extremities. It also discusses the structure of ribs, including the head, neck, body, angle and tubercle. The document outlines the types of ribs and their attachments. It explains that costal cartilage and ribs help protect organs and allow for expansion of the thoracic cavity during breathing. Common injuries to costal cartilage and ribs like fractures and cartilage separation are also summarized.
This document discusses the axial musculature of the body. It is divided into several sections that describe the major muscle groups of the axial skeleton including the muscles of the head and neck, vertebral column, thorax, and abdomen. Key muscle groups are the extraocular muscles that control eye movement, muscles of mastication like the masseter and temporalis, pharyngeal muscles like the constrictors, and abdominal muscles like the rectus abdominis. Diagrams and tables are provided to illustrate the origins, insertions and actions of the main axial muscles.
The brainstem is located between the cerebrum and spinal cord. It consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The midbrain connects the pons and cerebrum and contains the superior and inferior colliculi. The pons connects to the cerebellum via peduncles and contains pontine nuclei and cranial nerve nuclei. The medulla oblongata connects to the spinal cord and contains cranial nerve nuclei, the inferior olives, and tracts such as the gracile and cuneate fasciculi.
The document summarizes the major anatomical features of the cerebral hemispheres. It describes how the cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres and four lobes. It defines sulci as small grooves dividing gyri (elevated ridges) and fissures as deep grooves dividing large brain regions. It lists the major sulci and fissures that divide the lobes, including the central sulcus, longitudinal fissure, transverse fissure, and sylvian fissure. The four lobes of the brain are identified as the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes.
The document summarizes the key bones and structures of the human skeleton. It describes the 7 cervical vertebrae and characteristics of the atlas and axis. It then discusses the 12 thoracic vertebrae, 5 lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx. The thoracic cage is made up of thoracic vertebrae, ribs, sternum and costal cartilages. The appendicular skeleton includes the pectoral girdles of the clavicles and scapulae and the pelvic girdle.
This document discusses the muscles and nerves of the back. It describes the cutaneous innervation and blood supply of the back skin, noting the spinal nerve roots and arteries involved. It then outlines the two layers of back muscles that act on the upper limbs, including the trapezius, latissimus dorsi, levator scapulae, and rhomboid major and minor. For each muscle, it provides details on origin, insertion, nerve supply, and main actions. Finally, it briefly describes the spinal part of the accessory nerve and its involvement in innervating the trapezius muscle.
This document provides an overview of the muscular system chapter in a textbook. It discusses the organization of muscles in the body, their functions, and connective tissues. It also describes specific muscle groups like the muscles of the head and neck, trunk, shoulder, and hip and lower limb. Diagrams show the muscles and their attachments, shapes, actions, and innervation. The summary focuses on key muscle groups like the muscles of mastication, swallowing, respiration, and the shoulder.
The cerebellum is located in the posterior cranial fossa. It has three lobes - the anterior, posterior and flocculonodular lobes. It receives inputs from various parts of the brain and spinal cord via afferent pathways and sends outputs to motor areas of the brain via efferent pathways. The cerebellum plays key roles in motor control such as regulation of muscle tone and coordination of skilled voluntary movements, control of equilibrium and learning of new motor skills. Dysfunction of the cerebellum results in disturbances of posture, ataxia and intention tremors which can be assessed using clinical tests.
The document discusses physiology related to human balance and equilibrium. It defines static and dynamic equilibrium and describes the key systems and structures involved in maintaining balance, including the vestibular system, cerebellum, and their interconnections. The cerebellum coordinates movement and balance through three main sections. The vestibular system detects head movement through five receptor organs in each inner ear and sends signals to the brainstem and cerebellum through the vestibular nerve and nuclei.
1) Muscle tone is a state of partial contraction of resting muscle that maintains body posture through continuous motor impulses from reflexes.
2) Muscle spindles are stretch receptors that provide sensory feedback on muscle length and rate of stretch. Their afferents signal to the CNS and regulate motor neuron activity.
3) Spasticity results from loss of supraspinal control over reflexes after upper motor neuron injury, causing velocity-dependent increases in tonic stretch reflexes and impaired voluntary movement.
This document discusses the different types of muscle tissue, including skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. It focuses on the structure and function of skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscle is made up of parallel bundles of long multinucleated fibers that produce skeletal movement. Each muscle fiber is an individual muscle cell surrounded by the sarcolemma membrane with multiple oval nuclei placed peripherally. Skeletal muscle is connected to bone via tough tendons composed of dense collagen fibers. Fascia layers like the epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium surround bundles and individual fibers of muscle.
The diencephalon consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus. The thalamus relays sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex and is critical for sensory processing. The hypothalamus regulates autonomic functions like temperature, hunger, and circadian rhythms. It also controls the pituitary gland and emotional responses. The epithalamus includes the pineal gland which regulates melatonin secretion and sleep cycles.
The document provides an overview of the external morphology of the telencephalon. It discusses brain orientation and landmarks, the structure and location of the ventricles and cerebral hemispheres, and the four major lobes of the brain - frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. It also summarizes the primary motor and sensory cortices, including Brodmann areas, homunculi, and associated functions. Finally, it briefly outlines the structure and roles of white matter tracts, basal ganglia, and other deep gray matter structures in the telencephalon.
This document provides an overview of the surface anatomy of the upper limb. It begins by outlining the objectives of being able to palpate bony prominences, muscles, tendons, arteries, and veins. Surface anatomy is then defined as examining external body shapes and markings as they relate to deeper structures. The document then describes in detail the surface landmarks that can be palpated in the clavicle, shoulder, arm, elbow, forearm, wrist, hand, axilla, and arterial patterns.
This document provides an overview of the appendicular skeleton, which includes the pectoral girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs. It discusses the individual bones that make up these areas, including the clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges of the upper limb. For the lower limb it discusses the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges. It also notes differences between the male and female pelvis. The document contains diagrams labeling the bones and their features.
The reticular formation is a network of neurons located in the brainstem that serves important functions. It extends from the spinal cord up through the midbrain. The reticular formation receives input from various areas of the brain and spinal cord and sends output to many regions including the thalamus and cerebral cortex. It is involved in arousal, motor control, sensory processing, sleep-wake cycles and other vital functions through the ascending and descending reticular activating systems. Damage to or disruption of the reticular formation can impact consciousness, muscle tone, learning, and circadian rhythms.
The document provides an overview of the main anatomical divisions and structures of the human brain. It discusses that the brain can be divided into three main divisions - the forebrain (cerebrum), midbrain, and hindbrain. The cerebrum is the largest part and can be further divided into four lobes. The brain stem connects the forebrain and hindbrain and contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla. The cerebellum is located beneath the tentorium cerebelli and coordinates muscle movements and balance.
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is protected by three layers of tissue called meninges and surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid. It contains four interconnected ventricles that produce cerebrospinal fluid. The brain is divided into the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The forebrain contains the cerebrum and limbic system. The cerebrum is made up of grey matter and white matter and is involved in voluntary movement and complex functions. The spinal cord carries signals between the brain and body and contains 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
The document provides an overview of cerebrum anatomy. It discusses that the cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is divided into two hemispheres. It describes the lobes of the cerebrum including the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. It also discusses the internal structures of the cerebrum including the cerebral cortex, ventricles, basal ganglia, and white matter tracts.
control system in humans, neurons, types of neurons, nerves, human nervous system, CNS, PNS, ANS, Brain, parts of brain, spinal cord, functions of spinal cord, reflex arc, PNS, ANS,
The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system receives and integrates sensory information and coordinates voluntary and involuntary motor activity. It is protected by three layers of meninges and nourished by a network of blood vessels. The peripheral nervous system comprises the cranial and spinal nerves along with their ganglia and sensory receptors throughout the body. It is divided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
The brain is the central organ of the nervous system and controls many body functions. It is made up of several parts including the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem. The cerebrum is divided into left and right hemispheres and is responsible for higher functions like thinking. The cerebellum coordinates movement and balance, while the brain stem regulates vital functions like breathing. The brain contains specialized areas for functions like sensory processing, memory, and emotions. Diseases can damage parts of the brain and disrupt related functions.
The document discusses various topics related to the central nervous system including the brain, spinal cord, and brain stem. It provides information on the following:
- The brain is the most complex organ containing billions of neurons.
- The brain stem consists of the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain. The medulla and pons contain nuclei that relay signals and control autonomic functions. The midbrain is involved in eye movement, hearing, and posture.
- The cerebellum coordinates movement and balance by comparing motor input and output and relaying adjustments to the cortex through the red nucleus.
- Other parts of the central nervous system discussed include the hypothalamus, th
The document discusses the structure and function of the human brain. It describes the brain's four major regions - the cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, and cerebellum. The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres and five lobes. The brain is associated with 12 pairs of cranial nerves. The document outlines the brain's organization into gray matter and white matter and discusses structures that support and protect the brain like the meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and blood-brain barrier. It provides details on the cerebrum's functional areas including motor, sensory, and association areas.
The hippocampus is located deep in the brain and plays an important role in memory formation and spatial navigation. It is involved in fear conditioning and damage to the hippocampus has been linked to anxiety disorders like PTSD. The hippocampus contains anxiety cells that respond to unfamiliar places, and suppressing these cells reduces anxiety in mice. CBD may help reduce activity in the amygdala and aid signaling in the endocannabinoid system involving the hippocampus to help treat anxiety symptoms.
The document describes the major anatomical reference points and divisions of the nervous system. It discusses the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system. Within the central nervous system, it outlines the main regions including the forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and covers the structures and functions of areas like the cerebral cortex, limbic system, and cerebellum.
Neural control and coordination ppt presentation class 11 biology ncert basedpalmanish
1. The document provides information about neural control and coordination from the NCERT biology textbook. It describes the structure and function of the nervous system, including neurons, nerve impulses, and reflex actions.
2. Key parts of the central nervous system like the brain, spinal cord, and various brain regions are defined. The processes of vision and hearing are also summarized.
3. Coordination between different body systems like the neural and endocrine systems is explained. Sensory receptors and effector organs are described in the context of reflex arcs.
The diencephalon is located in the center of the brain and contains structures like the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus. The thalamus relays sensory signals to the cortex. The hypothalamus regulates body functions like temperature and hunger. The brainstem connects the brain to the spinal cord and contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The cerebellum coordinates movement and is connected to other areas by cerebellar peduncles.
The nervous system is composed of nerve cells called neurons that communicate with each other and other cells. It has two main divisions - the central nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system consisting of nerves linking the body to the CNS. The brain is protected by membranes and bone and has four main regions - the cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalons, and brain stem. The cerebrum controls intellectual functions, the cerebellum controls muscle coordination, and the diencephalons relay sensory information and regulate body functions. Cerebrospinal fluid cushions and nourishes the brain and spinal cord. Blood circulates to the brain through arteries and veins, protected by the blood
The midbrain connects the brainstem to the forebrain and cerebellum. It consists of the tectum and cerebral peduncles. The tectum contains the superior and inferior colliculi, which are involved in visual and auditory reflexes. The cerebral peduncles contain the substantia nigra and red nucleus. The red nucleus receives input from the motor cortex and dentate nucleus, and sends outputs to control muscle tone, complex movements, righting reflexes, and eye movements.
The brain is a highly organized organ that weighs approximately 1.4 kilograms. It contains around 100 billion neurons and is protected by the skull and meninges. The brain is made up of three main parts - the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem. The cerebrum is responsible for higher functions like thought and memory. The cerebellum coordinates movement and balance. The brain stem connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls involuntary functions essential for life.
The brainstem is the posterior part of the brain that connects to the spinal cord. It consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The midbrain is situated between the cerebrum and pons and connects the cerebrum to lower parts of the brain and spinal cord. The pons is below the midbrain and above the medulla; it contains nuclei that relay signals between the forebrain and cerebellum related to functions like sleep, respiration, and eye movement. The medulla is continuous with the spinal cord and contains nuclei that regulate involuntary functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. Abnormalities in the brainstem can cause issues with vision, hearing, sensation
The document discusses the brain and cranial nerves. It provides details on:
- The four major regions of the brain - cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, and cerebellum.
- The organization of brain tissue into gray and white matter.
- Structures that protect and support the brain, including the meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and blood-brain barrier.
- Functional areas of the cerebrum including motor, sensory, and association areas and their locations within the brain's lobes.
The document discusses the anatomy and physiology of the brain. It describes the main parts of the brain as the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem. The cerebrum is the largest part and is divided into four lobes that control functions like movement, sensation, vision, and language. The cerebellum aids in movement coordination and balance. The brain stem consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla, and controls vital functions like breathing and heart rate. Other parts discussed include the thalamus and hypothalamus, which regulate sensation and autonomic body processes respectively.
The nervous system is composed of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, which act as the main control centers. The brain is divided into the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem. The PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body and is composed of nerves and ganglia. It can be subdivided into sensory and motor nerves. Together, the nervous system allows the body to coordinate activities, sense the environment, and produce responses.
The document summarizes key aspects of the endocrine system, including:
- The endocrine system involves glands that release hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate distant target tissues.
- Hormones act via negative feedback loops to maintain homeostasis and are released in response to stimuli like changes in bodily fluids or neural/hormonal signals.
- Hormones can be categorized by their structure (peptides, steroids, etc.), method of signaling (classical vs paracrine vs autocrine), and their interactions which can include agonism, antagonism, permissiveness and synergism.
- Major glands discussed include the hypothalamus/pituitary axis, thyroid, parathyroids
The document summarizes the key structures and functions of the special senses - photoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, and chemoreceptors. It describes the anatomy and physiology of the eye, ear, olfactory epithelium, and taste buds. Light is detected by rods and cones in the retina and sound waves are detected by hair cells in the cochlea. Odorants activate olfactory cells and different chemicals stimulate gustatory cells to detect the basic tastes.
The document summarizes key aspects of the central nervous system. It describes the protective structures of the brain including the cranium, meninges and cerebrospinal fluid. It then outlines the four main regions of the brain - cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem and cerebellum - and provides details about their structures and functions. The spinal cord is also briefly discussed.
The nervous system has two main divisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS includes nerves and sensory receptors outside the CNS. Nervous tissue contains two main cell types - neurons, which conduct electrical signals, and neuroglia, which provide support and insulation. Neurons have a cell body and dendrites that receive signals and an axon that conducts signals to other neurons.
Ch 13 the peripheral nervous system and nervous activityAbay Alem
This document contains a list of figures and tables related to the peripheral nervous system and reflex activity from Lecture 13. There is no other text content, just a long list of figure and table references.
The document describes the three types of muscle tissue - skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. It then focuses on skeletal muscle, discussing the connective tissue wrappings that make up the organ, and the different patterns of fascicle arrangement including parallel, convergent, pennate, and circular muscles. It provides details on the microscopic anatomy of skeletal muscle fibers, including myofibrils, myofilaments, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and calcium ion role in contraction.
The document summarizes key aspects of the skeletal system. It describes the two types of bone tissue as compact bone and spongy bone. It explains the structure of long bones as having an epiphysis, diaphysis and medullary cavity. There are two types of ossification - intramembranous which forms flat bones, and endochondral which forms most other bones from hyaline cartilage models. Postnatal bone growth occurs through longitudinal growth at the epiphyseal plate and appositional growth increasing bone width.
There are three main classifications of joints based on structure and function. Synovial joints have a joint cavity containing synovial fluid and allow for the most movement. The knee is an example of a synovial joint, containing articular cartilage on the ends of the bones, a joint capsule, ligaments including the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments, and menisci that improve joint movement and reduce wear. There are six types of synovial joints including hinge, pivot, ball-and-socket, and condylar joints.
There are two main classifications of joints in the body: functional classification based on movement and structural classification based on material binding the bones. Structurally, there are fibrous joints with no cavity, cartilaginous joints with cartilage but no cavity, and synovial joints with ligaments, a cavity, and fluid-filled sac. Common synovial joints include ball-and-socket shoulders and hips, hinge elbows and knees, and pivot neck joints.
The document summarizes the structure and function of the integumentary system in 3 paragraphs:
The integumentary system has two main divisions - the skin and accessory structures. The skin is the largest organ and has two layers, the epidermis and dermis. Accessory structures include sweat and sebaceous glands, hair follicles, and nails, which are derived from the epidermis.
The epidermis has several strata with different cell types and densities. The dermis lies below with two layers - a papillary layer interdigitated with the epidermis and a deeper reticular layer. Various sensory receptors are located within the skin layers.
The skin has
The document discusses the four primary tissues in the human body - epithelial tissues, connective tissues, muscle tissues, and nervous tissue. It focuses on epithelial tissues, describing their characteristics, classification into simple and stratified epithelia, and the three major types of epithelial cells based on shape. The classification and characteristics of connective tissues are also summarized.
The document provides an overview of human anatomy and physiology. It discusses the taxonomy of humans and defines key terms like anatomy, gross anatomy, microscopic anatomy, and comparative anatomy. It also outlines the six levels of structural organization in the human body from chemical to organismal. Finally, it summarizes the 11 organ systems that make up the human body and introduces key concepts like homeostasis and anatomical positioning.
The document discusses the chemical composition and structure of matter at the atomic level. It states that all matter is composed of elements, which are made of atoms. The four main elements in the human body are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. It then lists the percentages of various elements that make up the human body. The structure of an atom is described, including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Chemical bonds such as ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and hydrogen bonds are explained. Important compounds in the human body like water, acids and bases, and organic compounds such as carbohydrates and proteins are also summarized.
The document summarizes key concepts about cells:
1. A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all organisms. Cells come in different shapes and sizes and perform specialized functions.
2. The main parts of a cell are the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus. The plasma membrane defines the cell boundary, the cytoplasm is the fluid inside the cell, and the nucleus contains the cell's genes.
3. Transport across the plasma membrane can occur passively via diffusion and osmosis or actively via pumps that require energy. The fluid mosaic model describes the plasma membrane structure.
64. Lumbar Myelomeningocele – Spina Bifida cystica – incomplete formation of the vertebral arches
Editor's Notes
Started here, 3 rd bullet… then lobes, then slide 14
Then 19
Now here… CEREBRUM – a section through the cerebrum -> 3 regions Outer cerebral cortex Inner cerebral white matter Islands of nuclei called the basal nuclei CEREBRAL CORTEX highly convoluted, appears gray due to the presence of unmyelinated structures = cell bodies, dendrites, supporting cells 2-4 mm thick but it accounts for 40% of the total brain mass composed of 6 layers of billions of neurons has 3 functional areas motor areas sensory areas association areas Motor areas of the cerebral cortex 4 areas (slide 21?) primary motor cortex located in the PRECENTRAL GYRUS in the frontal lobe neurons in the precentral gyrus called the PYRAMIDAL CELLS have large tracts that descend to the spinal cord to control voluntary precise movements The pyramidal tracts (= coricospinal tracts) decossate (cross over) to control voluntary movements of skeletal muscle on opposites of the body Pyramidal cells in the LEFT precentral gyrus control voluntary movement of skeletal muscles on the RIGHT side of the body; and vice versa Hence, the cerebral cortex exhibits contralateral control of voluntary movements of the skeletal muscle Damage to the left precentral gyrus will result in loss of voluntary motor function on the RIGHT side of the body – paralysis of the right side of the body; and vica versa premotor cortex located in the frontal lobe anterior to the precentral gyrus controls voluntary skilled skeletal muscle movements that are patterned or repetitious in nature… ex. Typing Hence, the premotor cortex is referred to as the “memory bank for skilled patterned skeletal muscle activities” broca’s area = speech motor area located in the frontal lobe and is below the premotor cortex controls skeletal muscles involved in speech production damage to the broca’s area results in the loss of speech located in one hemisphere, mostly in the LEFT cerebral hemisphere **Insult (stroke) involving the left cerebral hemisphere involves the left precentral gyrus broca’s area LEADS TO RIGHT SIDE PARALYSIS AND LOSS OF SPEECH frontal eye field (4 th area) located in the frontal lobe of both hemispheres controls skeletal muscles that control eye movements On to slide 21 (we were already on it, just writing stuff there
Sensory area of the cerebral cortex primary somatosensory corex located in the postcentral gyrus (in the parietal lobe) receives sensory info from receptors in the skin, skeletal muscle, joints, for SPATIAL DISCRIMINATION ability to differentiate areas of the body being stimulated primary visual cortex located in the occipital lobe of both hemispheres receives sensory input from the retinae in the eyes. The primary somatosensory cortex and the primary visual cortex exhibit contralateral inputs Sensory inputs from the left side of the body received by the RIGHT postcentral gyrus and vice versa Sensory inputs from the retinae (vision) in the left eye go to the RIGHT occipital cortex right PRIMARY VISUAL CORTEX 3) primary auditory (hearing) cortex is located in the temporal lobes of both cerebral hemispheres 4) primary gustatory (taste) cortex is located in the insula of both cerebral hemispheres 5) primary olfactory (smell) cortex is located in the temporal lobes; emotional aspect in frontal lobe 3 rd functional area in the cerebral cortex association areas each sensory area has an association area. The association areas integrate/interpret and appreciate the sensory input information
2 nd region of the cerebrum cerebral white matter region DEEP to the cerebral cortex cerebral white matter is composed of MYELINATED axons (“whitish”) bundle to form TRACTS 3 types of tracts Commissural tracts = Commissures connect areas of the 2 cerebral hemispheres ex. CORPUS CALLOSUM which connects to cerebral hemispheres medially Association tracts connect areas within the same cerebral hemisphere; ex. ARCUATE FASCICULATE which connects the broca’s area to the Wernicke’s area in the left cerebral hemisphere for language acquisition meaning that you have words that make sense in a coherent sentence See next slide
11/10 Cerebral white matter = 3 types of tracts Commissural tracts commissures Association tracts Projection tracts Run vertically between the cerebral cortex… the lower brain regions (=subcortical regions) and the spinal cord 2 types descending projection tracts – come from cerebral cortex ascending projection tracts – TO the cerebral cortex for interpretation, see next slide for picture… now what opoku said descending projection tracts motor tracts carrying efferent impulses from the cerebral cortex EX. Pyramidal (corticospinal) tracts descending from the precentral gyri ascending projection tracts see slide 27 for pictures, sensory inputs = afferent impulses carried TO the cerebral cortex from sensory receptors for interpretation EX. Spinothalamic tract Next slide
3 rd region in the cerebrum basal nuclei = islands of gray matter in the cerebral white matter (nucleus = a cluster of neuronal cell bodies in the CNS) 3 major basal nuclei (superior inferior) Caudate Putamen Globus pallidus b&c above = lentiform nucleus All three above = CORPUS STRIATUM As the pyramidal tracts coursing through them give the 3 nuclei a striated appearance (corpus striatum = “striated body”) Function of the basal nuclei involved in the initiation and monitoring of intensity of voluntary movement skeletal muscle movement 2 lateral ventricles are located in the 2 cerebral hemispheres each cerebral hemisphere contains a lateral ventricle 2 lateral ventricles are separated by the septum pellicidum 2 lateral ventricles are connected inferiorly to the 3 rd ventricle by the interventricular foramen (foramen of Monro)
2 nd region of the adult (postnatal) brain DIENCEPHALON contains the 3 rd ventricle located below the cerebrum consists of 3 pairs of gray matter structures (on next slide)
Missed some stuff… thalamus accounts for 80% of the total mass of the diencephalon The cell bodies (gray matter) in the thalamus act as relay centers for sensory info projected to the cerebral cortex. Hence, the thalamus is referred to as the “GATEWAY TO THE CEREBRAL CORTEX” 2 of such relay centers in the thalamus lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) LGN is the visual relay center MGN is the auditory relay center Hypothalamus is located below the thalamus major endocrime gland 9 hormones controls all body functions to maintain homeostasis Epithalamus dorsal to the thalamus contains an endocrine gland pineal gland secretes a hormone called melatonin “sleep inducting chemical” that works with the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus to bring about sleep
Midbrain Cerebral peducles Cerebral aqueducts Corpora quadrigemina superior colliculi and the inferior colliculi Superior cerebellar peduncles which connect the motor tracts passing the midbrain to the cerebellum 2 pigmented nuclei red nuclei and the substantia nigra Red nuclei – relay centers for descending motor tracts that control limb flexion Substantia nigra appear black due to high concentration of melanin (melanin used in the production/synthesis of the neurotransmitter DOPAMINE) Hence, the neurons in the substantia nigra are referred to as dopaminergic neurons project to the BASAL NUCLEI (in the cerebrum) to modulate the activities of the basal nuclei for the initiation of skilled, coordinated skeletal muscle movements Damage or degeneration of the dopaminergic neurons from the substantia nigra to the basal nuclei result in the symptoms of parkinson’s disease ========================== -resting tremor -masklike facial expression (expressionless) -slow to initiate voluntary movements -shuffling gait -slurred speech The cell bodies of 2 cranial nerves are located in the midbrain CN III, IV Now, looking at pons
Pons middle region of the brain stem between the midbrain and the medulla oblongata Pons contains conducting tracts projection tracts between the cerebral cortex and the spinal cord tracts travel through the middle cerebellar peduncles to the cerebellum Pons also contains the respiratory centers apneustic center and pneumotaxic center apneustic center controls the rate of breathing pneumotaxic center controls the depth of breathing Pons will have cell bodies for 3 cranial nerves CN V, VI, VII MEDULLA OBLONGATA most inferior region of the brain stem continued by the spinal cord at the level of the Foramen magnum of the skull contains: inferior cerebellar peduncles that connect the medulla to the cerebellum cell bodies for cranial nerves VIII-XII Ventral aspect of the medulla, the descending pyramidal tracts decussate (cross-over) and the point of crossing over is referred to as the DECUSSATION of the PYRAMIDS explains the contralateral control of voluntary movements in the body explains why the left precentral gyrus controls the voluntary movements (of skeletal muscles) on the right side and vice versa Medulla is responsible for something and contains these structures… Cardiovascular center cardiac center = regulates the heart rate and stroke volume vasomotor center regulates the diameter of blood vessels Cardiovascular center regulates in blood pressure 2) Respiratory center apneustic center and pneumotaxic center 3) Swallowing center 4) Coughing center 5) Emetic (vomiting) center)
4 th region of the adult (postnatal) brain CEREBELLUM Accounts for about 11% of the total brain mass Located behind (posterior) to the brain stem and connected to the brain stem via the superior, middle, and inferior cerebellar peduncles Also located inferior to the occipital lobes of the cerebrum (or cerebral hemispheres) The cerebellum is separated from the occipital lobes by the transverse fissure (deep sulcus) Cerebellum divided into 2 cerebellar hemispheres held together medially by the VERMIS Each cerebellar hemisphere is divided into 3 lobes Anterior lobe Posterior lobe Flocculonodular lobe 1&2 can be viewed on the external surface 3 cannot be viewed on the external surface of the cerebellar hemispheres 3 is located deep to the vermis A section through the cerebellum will reveal 2 regions outer gray matter and inner white matter inner white matter branches into a tree-like pattern referred to as ARBOR VITAE (the tree of life) Function of the cerebellum well-coordinated smooth, skillful skeletal muscle movements also involved in balance (equilibrium) involved in maintenance of posture Alcohol intoxication affects the cerebellum the most.
11/15 CNS Superior brain and inferior spinal cord In the adult the spinal cord is about 42 cm (17 inches) long and it extends from the foramen magnum to the 1 st lumbar vertebra. 3 protective structures bony structure vertebral column meninges CSF Slide 48
Spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum L1 appears tapered and ends in cone-shaped structure called the CONUS MEDULLARIS (fibrous extensions from the conus medullaris covered by pia mater) the whole thing in parentheses is called the FILUM TERMINALE attaches to the coccyx to anchor the spinal cord vertically 31 pairs of spinal nerves exit through intervertebral foramina into the PNS 8 pairs of vervical nerves 12 pairs of thoracic 5 lumbar 5 sacral 1 coccyx These 31 pairs of spinal nerves innervate structures outside of the CNS structures in the PNS spinal cord 2 enlargements (slide 52)
49
If you look at the vertebral column C1 to L1 vertebrae provide protection ------------------------- Meninges 3 types Dura mater – outermost meninx, SINGLE-LAYERED and it does not line the internal surface of the vertebrae – there is no contact A space between the verebrae and the dura mater called the EPIDURAL SPACE is present the epidural space contains fat and veins site for epidural anesthesia to block pain the single layered dura mater of the spinal cord is also referred to as the SPINAL DURAL SHEATH Arachnoid mater – middle meninx separated from the spinal dural sheath by a space called the SUBDURAL SPACE The arachnoid mater is separated from the pia mater (innermost meninx) by a space called the SUBARACHNOID SPACE contains CSF Pia mater – innermost meninx forms lateral structures called DENTICULATE ligaments anchor the spinal cord laterally to the spinal dural sheath. Pia mater attaches to the surface of the spinal cord (she showed us a picture on slide 50) went back to slide 48 3 rd protective structure is called the Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) contained in the subarachnoid space (around the spinal cord) and in the CENTRAL CANAL runs vertically through the core of the spinal cord (inside the spinal cord) The central canal extends and receives CSF from the 4 th ventricle located in the brain stem Function of CSF provide nutrients, remove metabolic wastes, fluid cushion Slide 47
Cervical enlargement superior enlargement in the cervical region of the spinal cord Spinal nerves from the cervical enlargements will innervate skeletal muscles in the upper limbs nerves control voluntary movements of the upper limbs ================= Lumbar enlargement inferior to cervical enlargement around the lower thoracic and upper lumbar region of the spinal cord spinal nerves from the lumbar enlargement innervate and control voluntary movements of skeletal muscle in the lower limbs Damage or transection of the enlargements will result in paralysis FLACCID paralysis Transection (cutting) of the spinal cord at or above the cervical enlargement will result in paralysis of all 4 limbs both upper and lower limbs quadriplegia Transection of the spinal cord below the cervical enlargement but above the lumbar enlargemnet will only result in paralysis of the lower limbs paraplegia **note hemiplegia paralysis of one side of the body is due to damage to the precentral gyri in the cerebral coretex (BRAIN DAMAGE instead of spinal cord damage) Hemiplegia is also referred to as SPASTIC paralysis =========================== The spinal nerves below L1 form a collection of nerve roots called the CAUDA EQUINA as they exit their foramina below the L1 =========================== Slide 56
Cross section through the spinal cord outer white matter and inner gray matter The outer white matter composed of mainly myelinated tracts that communicate info between area within the spinal cord and the brain Based on orientation we have 3 areas or columns called funiculi These funiculi contain 3 types of tracts ascending tracts, descending tracts, interneurons Ascending tracts send sensory information to the brain Descending tracts send motor information from the brain to the spinal cord Interneurons communication within the spinal cord Inner gray matter shaped like an “H” or a butterfly mirror images connected by the gray commisure immediately surrounds the central canal Regions with gray matter dorsal horns central horns lateral horns spinal cord at the level of the thoracic or L1 region contain cell bodies of the sympathetic fibers of the autonomic nervous system ============ 11/17 Spinal cord Outer white matter Ascending tracts Descending tracts Interneurons = transverse tracts Inner gray matter shapped like the letter “H” or a butterfly mirror image connected by a band of gray matter called the GRAY COMMISSURE Each side consists of a) DORSAL HORN houses cell bodies for interneurons b) Ventral horn houses cell bodies for somatic neurons that innervate the skeletal muscles c) Lateral horn only present in the spinal cord region of the thoracic and lumbar houses cell bodies of the sympathetic nerve fibers Damage to the cell body of the somatic neurons in the ventral horns Anytrophic Lateral sclerosis (Lov Gehrig’s disease) Hence, in ALS, the patient loses the ability to walk, speak, swallow, breathe breathing lost because the diaphragm (a skeletal muscle) is paralyzed Slide 59