The document discusses the structure and function of the human brain. It describes the brain's four major regions - the cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, and cerebellum. The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres and five lobes. The brain is associated with 12 pairs of cranial nerves. The document outlines the brain's organization into gray matter and white matter and discusses structures that support and protect the brain like the meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and blood-brain barrier. It provides details on the cerebrum's functional areas including motor, sensory, and association areas.
Here is anatomy and physiology of brain stem. Where we will discuss all three parts of brain stem. Starting from medulla, second is pons and third is mid brain. In this video I am presenting anatomy and physiology of medulla. Anatomy of medulla: Medulla Oblongata or more simply medulla is part of brain stem which forms base of the brain stem. Location of medulla oblongata is superior to spinal cord and inferior to Pons. It contains pyramid, olive and above pyramidal structure, there is decussation of pyramids which explains why each part of brain controls opposite part of body. Adding to that medulla also has several nuclei which controls activity of cardiovascular system and respiratory system. Medulla also has nuclei for controlling reflexes of vomiting, swallowing, hiccuping, coughing and sneezing. It has also nuclei for test, hearing and balance. Medulla also contains nuclei of cranial nerve number VIII, IX, X, XI and XII. Functions of medulla or what dose medulla do? So medulla controls blood pressure, diameter of wall of arteries, heart rate, basal respiration rate and also vomiting, swallowing, hiccuping, coughing and sneezing.
In this video, we explain you about anatomy and physiology of Pons. The reference material used to make video is: Principles of Anatomy and Physiology Gerard J. Tortora, Bryan H. Derrickson. Pons is part of brain stem, present superior to medulla, inferior to mid brain and anterior to cerebellum. Pons means a bridge. As the name denotes, it connects other areas of brain. Neurons extending from cerebral cortex to pons makes corticopontine tract. Pons is connected to cerebellum by middle cerebral peduncle. Pons has vestibular nuclei, which is part of equilibrium pathways from inner ear to brain. Pons has also respiratory nuclei. Along with rhythmicity area of medulla, pons controls basal respiratory rhythm. Pons also contains nuclei for cranial nerve number V, VI,VII, and VIII.
Here is anatomy and physiology of brain stem. Where we will discuss all three parts of brain stem. Starting from medulla, second is pons and third is mid brain. In this video I am presenting anatomy and physiology of medulla. Anatomy of medulla: Medulla Oblongata or more simply medulla is part of brain stem which forms base of the brain stem. Location of medulla oblongata is superior to spinal cord and inferior to Pons. It contains pyramid, olive and above pyramidal structure, there is decussation of pyramids which explains why each part of brain controls opposite part of body. Adding to that medulla also has several nuclei which controls activity of cardiovascular system and respiratory system. Medulla also has nuclei for controlling reflexes of vomiting, swallowing, hiccuping, coughing and sneezing. It has also nuclei for test, hearing and balance. Medulla also contains nuclei of cranial nerve number VIII, IX, X, XI and XII. Functions of medulla or what dose medulla do? So medulla controls blood pressure, diameter of wall of arteries, heart rate, basal respiration rate and also vomiting, swallowing, hiccuping, coughing and sneezing.
In this video, we explain you about anatomy and physiology of Pons. The reference material used to make video is: Principles of Anatomy and Physiology Gerard J. Tortora, Bryan H. Derrickson. Pons is part of brain stem, present superior to medulla, inferior to mid brain and anterior to cerebellum. Pons means a bridge. As the name denotes, it connects other areas of brain. Neurons extending from cerebral cortex to pons makes corticopontine tract. Pons is connected to cerebellum by middle cerebral peduncle. Pons has vestibular nuclei, which is part of equilibrium pathways from inner ear to brain. Pons has also respiratory nuclei. Along with rhythmicity area of medulla, pons controls basal respiratory rhythm. Pons also contains nuclei for cranial nerve number V, VI,VII, and VIII.
THIS PRESENTATION IS UPLOADED TO HELP THE EDUCATOR OF MEDICAL, NURSING & ALLIE HEALTH SCIENCES TO TEACH THEIR STUDENTS ABOUT THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. IT WILL ALSO CREATE AWARENESS AMONG THE COMMON PEOPLE REGARDING NERVOUS SYSTEM.
control system in humans, neurons, types of neurons, nerves, human nervous system, CNS, PNS, ANS, Brain, parts of brain, spinal cord, functions of spinal cord, reflex arc, PNS, ANS,
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Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
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disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
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In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
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the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
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TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
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Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
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New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
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The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
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The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
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This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
2. 15-2
Brain and Cranial Nerves
An adult brain weighs between 1.35 and 1.4
kilograms (kg) (around 3 pounds) and has a
volume of about 1200 cubic centimeters (cc).
Brain size is not directly correlated with
intelligence
It is not the physical size of the brain that
determines intelligence—it is the number of
active synapses.
3. 15-3
The Brain’s 4 Major Regions
Cerebrum, the diencephalon, the brainstem, and
the cerebellum.
The cerebrum is divided into two halves, called the
left and right cerebral hemispheres.
Each hemisphere is subdivided into five functional
areas called lobes.
Outer surface of an adult brain exhibits folds called
gyri (gyrus) and shallow depressions between
those folds called sulci (sulcus).
The brain is associated with 12 pairs of cranial
nerves.
13. 15-13
Organization of Brain Tissue
Gray matter:
motor neuron and interneuron cell bodies, dendrites, axon
terminals
unmyelinated axons.
White matter:
composed primarily of myelinated axons.
During brain development, an outer, superficial
region of gray matter forms from migrating peripheral
neurons.
External sheets of gray matter, called the cortex,
cover the surface of most of the adult brain (the
cerebrum and the cerebellum).
14. 15-14
Organization of Brain Tissue
White matter lies deep to the gray matter
of the cortex.
Within the masses of white matter:
discrete innermost clusters of gray matter
called cerebral nuclei (or basal nuclei).
are oval, spherical, or sometimes irregularly
shaped clusters of neuron cell bodies.
17. 15-17
Support and Protection of the
Brain
The brain is protected and isolated by multiple
structures:
bony cranium
Meninges:
Protective connective tissue membranes
surround and partition portions of the brain.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
acts as a cushioning fluid.
Blood-brain barrier:
prevents entry of harmful materials from the
bloodstream.
18. 15-18
Cranial Meninges
Three dense regular connective tissue layers:
separate the soft tissue of the brain from the bones of
the cranium.
Enclose and protect blood vessels that supply the brain.
Contain and circulate cerebrospinal fluid.
Parts of the cranial meninges form some of the veins
that drain blood from the brain.
From superficial to deep, the cranial meninges are
the dura mater, the arachnoid, and the pia mater.
20. 15-20
Dura Mater
Tough membrane composed of two fibrous
layers.
Strongest of the meninges.
Dura mater is composed of two layers.
periosteal layer, the more superficial layer,
attaches to the periosteum of the cranial bones
meningeal layer lies deep to the periosteal layer
The meningeal layer is usually fused to the
periosteal layer
21. 15-21
Arachnoid
Also called the arachnoid mater or the arachnoid
membrane.
Lies immediately internal to the dura mater.
Partially composed of a delicate web of collagen
and elastic fibers, termed the arachnoid trabeculae.
Between the arachnoid and the overlying dura
mater is the subdural space.
Immediately deep to the arachnoid is the
subarachnoid space.
22. 15-22
Pia Mater
The innermost of the cranial meninges.
Thin layer of delicate connective tissue
that tightly adheres to the brain and
follows every contour of the brain
surface.
24. 15-24
Cranial Dural Septa
The meningeal layer of the dura mater extends
as flat partitions (septa) deep into the cranial cavity;
at four locations
called cranial dural septa.
Membranous partitions separate specific parts of the
brain and provide additional stabilization and
support to the entire brain.
falx cerebri
tentorium cerebelli
falx cerebelli
diaphragma sellae
27. 15-27
Brain Ventricles
Cavities or expansions within the brain that are derived from
the lumen (opening) of the embryonic neural tube.
Continuous with one another as well as with the central
canal of the spinal cord.
Four ventricles in the brain.
two lateral ventricles are in the cerebrum, separated by a thin medial
partition called the septum pellucidum
within the diencephalon is a smaller ventricle called the third ventricle
each lateral ventricle communicates with the third ventricle through an
opening called the interventricular foramen
The fourth ventricle is located within the pons and
cerebellum.
30. 15-30
Cerebrospinal Fluid
A clear, colorless liquid that circulates in the ventricles
and subarachnoid space.
Bathes the exposed surfaces of the central nervous system
and completely surrounds it.
Performs several important functions.
Buoyancy (float)
protection
supplies nutrients to nervous system tissue
Formed by the choroid plexus in each ventricle.
Produced by secretion of a fluid from the ependymal cells
that originate from the blood plasma.
Is similar to blood plasma.
33. 15-33
Blood-Brain Barrier
Nervous tissue is protected from the general
circulation by the blood-brain barrier.
Strictly regulates what substances can enter the
interstitial fluid of the brain.
Prevents exposure of neurons in the brain to
drugs, waste products in the blood, and
variations in levels of normal substances (ions,
hormones) that could adversely affect brain
function.
34. 15-34
Blood-Brain Barrier
Tight junctions prevent materials from diffusing
across the capillary wall.
Astrocytes act as “gatekeepers” that permit
materials to pass to the neurons after leaving
the capillaries.
Is markedly reduced or missing in three distinct
locations in the CNS: the choroid plexus,
hypothalamus, and pineal gland.
36. 15-36
Cerebrum
Account for 83% of brain mass
Fissures – deep grooves – separate major regions of
the brain
Transverse fissure – separates cerebrum and cerebellum
Longitudinal fissure – separates cerebral hemispheres
Sulci – grooves on the surface of the cerebral
hemispheres
Gyri – twisted ridges between sulci
Prominent gyri and sulci are similar in all people
37. 15-37
Cerebrum
Deeper sulci divide cerebrum into lobes
Lobes are named for the skull bones overlying them
Central sulcus separates frontal and parietal lobes
Bordered by two gyri
Precentral gyrus
Postcentral gyrus
Parieto-occipital sulcus
Separates the occipital from the parietal lobe
Lateral sulcus
Separates temporal lobe from parietal and frontal lobes
Insula – deep within the lateral sulcus
41. 15-41
Cerebrum: functional areas
Home of our conscious mind
Enables us to:
Be aware of ourselves and our sensations
Initiate and control voluntary movements
Communicate, remember, and understand
42. 15-42
Cerebral cortex
Composed of gray matter
Neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and short
axons
Folds in cortex – triples its size
Approximately 40% of brain’s mass
Brodmann areas – 52 structurally
distinct areas
44. 15-44
Functional areas of the cortex
Three kinds of functional areas
Motor areas
Sensory areas
Association areas
45. 15-45
Motor areas
Controls motor functions
Primary motor cortex (somatic motor area)
Located in precentral gyrus (Brodmann
area 4)
Pyramidal cells – large neurons of
primary motor cortex
46. 15-46
Motor areas
Corticospinal tracts descend through
brainstem and spinal cord
Axons signal motor neurons to control
skilled movements
Contralateral – pyramidal axons cross
over to opposite side of the brain
47. 15-47
Motor areas
Specific pyramidal cells control specific
areas of the body
Face and hand muscles – controlled by
many pyramidal cells
Motor homunculus – body map of the
motor cortex
49. 15-49
Sensory cortex
Cortical areas involved in conscious
awareness of sensation
Located in parietal, temporal, and
occipital lobes
Distinct area for each of the major
senses
50. 15-50
Primary Somatosensory
Cortex
Located along the postcentral gyrus
Corresponds to Brodmann areas 1-3
Involved with conscious awareness of
general somatic senses
Spatial discrimination – precisely
locates a stimulus
51. 15-51
Primary Somatosensory
Cortex
Projection is contralateral
Cerebral hemispheres
Receive sensory input from the opposite side of
the body
Sensory homunculus – a body map of
the sensory cortex
53. 15-53
Somatosensory Association Area
Lies posterior to the primary
somatosensory cortex
Corresponds to Brodmann areas 5 and 7
Integrates different sensory inputs
Touch, pressure, and others
Draws upon stored memories of past
sensory experiences
54. 15-54
Sensory Areas – Visual Areas
Primary visual cortex
Corresponds to Brodmann area 17
Located deep within the calcarine sulcus
On the posterior and medial part of the occipital
lobe
Receives visual information that originates
on the retina
First of a series of areas that interprets
visual input
55. 15-55
Sensory Areas – Visual Areas
Visual association area
Surrounds the primary visual area
Coincides with Brodmann areas 18 and 19
Continues the processing of visual
information
Complex visual processing extends into:
Temporal and parietal lobes
56. 15-56
Sensory Areas – Auditory Areas
Primary auditory cortex
Function – conscious awareness of sound
Location – superior edge of the temporal
lobe
Corresponds to Brodmann areas 41 and
42
57. 15-57
Sensory Areas – Auditory Areas
Auditory association area
Lies posterior to the primary auditory
cortex
Located within Brodmann area 22
Permits evaluation of different sounds
Lies in the center of Wernicke’s area
Involved in recognizing and understanding
speech
58. 15-58
Sensory Areas – Gustatory
Cortex
Involved in the conscious awareness of
taste stimuli
Corresponds to Brodmann area 43
Located on the “roof” of the lateral
sulcus
59. 15-59
Sensory Areas – Vestibular
Cortex
Located in the posterior part of the
insula
Deep to the lateral sulcus
60. 15-60
Sensory Areas – Olfactory Cortex
Lies on the medial aspect of the
cerebrum
Located in a region called the piriform
lobe
Olfactory nerves transmit impulses to
the olfactory cortex
Provides conscious awareness of smells
61. 15-61
Sensory Areas – Olfactory Cortex
Part of the rhinencephalon – “nose brain”
Includes – the piriform lobe, olfactory tract,
and olfactory bulb
Connects the brain to the limbic system
Explains why smells trigger emotions
Orbitofrontal cortex
Involved with consciously identifying and recalling
specific smells
62. 15-62
Association areas
Make associations between different
types of sensory information
Associate new sensory input with
memories of past experiences
New name for association areas –
higher order processing areas
63. 15-63
Association Areas – Prefrontal
Cortex
Large region of the frontal lobe anterior
to motor areas
Performs cognitive functions
All aspects of thinking and perceiving
Remembering and recalling information
Also related to mood
Has close links to the limbic part of the
forebrain
64. 15-64
Association Areas – Prefrontal
Cortex
Functional neuroimaging techniques
Reveal functions of specific parts of the prefrontal
cortex
Anterior pole of frontal cortex
Active in solving the most complex problems
The farther rostrally one goes in the CNS, the
more complex the neural functions
65. 15-65
Association Areas – Prefrontal
Cortex
Functional areas located on the medial
side of the frontal lobe
Regions anterior to the corpus callosum
Involved in complex personal and social
interactions
Regions superior to the corpus callosum
Involved in “mentalization
66. 15-66
Association Areas – General
Interpretation Area
Function is currently under investigation
Located at the interface of:
The visual, auditory, and somatosensory
association areas
Newer studies show most of this region
is involved in the visual processing of
spatial relationships
67. 15-67
Association Areas – Language
Area
Surrounds the lateral sulcus in the left
cerebral hemisphere
Five parts have been identified
Broca’s area – speech production
Wernicke’s area – speech comprehension
Lateral prefrontal cortex – conceptual
analysis of spoken words
68. 15-68
Association Areas – Language
Area
Five parts have been identified
(continued)
Most of the lateral and inferior temporal
lobe
Coordination of auditory and visual aspects of
language
Parts of the insula
Initiation of word articulation
Recognition of rhymes and sound sequences
69. 15-69
Association Areas – Insula
Functions of its cortex – not well understood
Some parts function in language and the
sense of balance
Other parts – visceral function
Conscious perception of:
Upset stomach
Full bladder
Some aspects of the sense of smell
71. 15-71
Lateralization of Cortical
Functioning
Left cerebral hemisphere – more control over:
Language abilities, math, and logic
Right cerebral hemisphere – more involved
with:
Visual-spatial skills
Reading facial expressions
Intuition, emotion, artistic and musical skills
72. 15-72
Cerebral White Matter
Different areas of the cerebral cortex
communicate:
With each other
With the brainstem and spinal cord
Fibers are usually myelinated and
bundled into tracts
73. 15-73
Cerebral White Matter
Types of tracts
Commissures – composed of commissural
fibers
Allows communication between cerebral
hemispheres
Corpus callosum – the largest commissure
Association fibers
Connect different parts of the same hemisphere
76. 15-76
Cerebral White Matter
Types of tracts (continued)
Projection fibers – run vertically
Descend from the cerebral cortex
Ascend to the cortex from lower regions
78. 15-78
Projection tracts
Internal capsule – projection fibers form
a compact bundle
Passes between the thalamus and basal
nuclei
Corona radiata – superior to the internal
capsule
Fibers run to and from the cerebral cortex
79. 15-79
Basal nuclei
A group of nuclei deep within the
cerebral white matter
Caudate nucleus – arches over the
thalamus
Lentiform nucleus – “lens shaped”
Amygdala – sits on top of the caudate
nucleus
Functionally belongs with the limbic system
83. 15-83
Basal nuclei
Cooperate with the cerebral cortex in
controlling movements
Receive input from many cortical areas
Evidence shows that they:
Start, stop, and regulate intensity of
voluntary movements
In some way estimate the passage of time
84. 15-84
The Diencephalon
Forms the center core of the forebrain
Surrounded by the cerebral
hemispheres
Composed of three paired structures:
Thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus
Border the third ventricle
Primarily composed of gray matter
85. 15-85
The Thalamus
Makes up 80% of the diencephalon
Contains approximately a dozen major
nuclei
Send axons to regions of the cerebral
cortex
Nuclei act as relay stations for incoming
sensory messages
88. 15-88
The Thalamus
Afferent impulses converge on the
thalamus
Synapse in at least one of its nuclei
Is the “gateway” to the cerebral cortex
Nuclei organize and amplify or tone
down signals
89. 15-89
The Diencephalon – The
Hypothalamus
Lies between the optic chiasm and the
mammillary bodies
Pituitary gland projects inferiorly
Contains approximately a dozen nuclei
Main visceral control center of the body
90. 15-90
The Hypothalamus
Functions include the following:
Control of the autonomic nervous system
Control of emotional responses
Regulation of body temperature
Regulation of hunger and thirst sensations
Control of behavior
Regulation of sleep-wake cycles
Control of the endocrine system
Formation of memory
92. 15-92
The Diencephalon – The
Epithalamus
Forms part of the “roof” of the third
ventricle
Consists of a tiny group of nuclei
Includes the pineal gland (pineal
body)
Secretes the hormone melatonin
Under influence of the hypothalamus
94. 15-94
The Brain Stem
Includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla
oblongata
Several general functions
Produces automatic behaviors necessary for
survival
Passageway for all fiber tracts running between
the cerebrum and spinal cord
Heavily involved with the innervation of the face
and head
10 of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves attach to it
95. 15-95
The Brain Stem – The Midbrain
Lies between the diencephalon and the
pons
Central cavity – the cerebral aqueduct
Cerebral peduncles located on the
ventral surface of the brain
Contain pyramidal (corticospinal) tracts
Superior cerebellar peduncles
Connect midbrain to the cerebellum
97. 15-97
The Brain Stem – The Midbrain
Periaqueductal gray matter surrounds
the cerebral aqueduct
Involved in two related functions
Fright-and-flight reaction
Mediates response to visceral pain
99. 15-99
The Brain Stem – The Midbrain
Corpora quadrigemina – the largest
nuclei
Divided into the superior and inferior
colliculi
Superior colliculi – nuclei that act in visual
reflexes
Inferior colliculi – nuclei that act in reflexive
response to sound
101. 15-101
The Brain Stem – The Midbrain
Imbedded in the white matter of the
midbrain
Two pigmented nuclei
Substantia nigra – neuronal cell bodies
contain melanin
Functionally linked to the basal nuclei
Red nucleus – lies deep to the substantia
nigra
Largest nucleus of the reticular formation
103. 15-103
The Brain Stem – The Pons
Located between the midbrain and
medulla oblongata
Contains the nuclei of cranial nerves V,
VI, and VII
Two general groups of cranial nerve
nuclei
Motor nuclei
Sensory nuclei
106. 15-106
The Brain Stem – The Medulla
Oblongata
Most caudal level of the brain stem
Continuous with the spinal cord
Choroid plexus lies in the roof of the fourth
ventricle
Pyramids of the medulla – lie on its ventral surface
Decussation of the pyramids – crossing over of motor
tracts
Cranial nerves VIII–XII attach to the medulla
107. 15-107
The Brain Stem – The Medulla
Oblongata
The core of the medulla contains:
Much of the reticular formation
Nuclei influence autonomic functions
Visceral centers of the reticular formation include:
Cardiac center
Vasomotor center
The medullary respiratory center
Centers for hiccupping, sneezing, swallowing, and
coughing
110. 15-110
The Cerebellum
Located dorsal to the pons and medulla
Smoothes and coordinates body
movements
Helps maintain equilibrium
111. 15-111
The Cerebellum
Consists of two cerebellar hemispheres
Surface folded into ridges called folia
Separated by fissures
Hemispheres each subdivided into:
Anterior lobe
Posterior lobe
113. 15-113
The Cerebellum
Composed of three regions
Cortex – gray matter
Internal white matter
Deep cerebellar nuclei – deeply situated gray
matter
Cerebellum must receive information
On equilibrium
On current movements of limbs, neck, and trunk
From the cerebral cortex
114. 15-114
The Cerebellum – Cerebellar
Peduncles
Fibers to and from the cerebellum are
ipsilateral
Run to and from the same side of the body
Thick tracts connecting the cerebellum
to the brain stem
Superior cerebellar peduncles
Middle cerebellar peduncles
Inferior cerebellar peduncles
116. 15-116
Functional Brain Systems
Networks of neurons functioning
together
The limbic system – spread widely in the
forebrain
The reticular formation – spans the brain
stem
117. 15-117
Functional Brain Systems – The
Limbic System
Location
Medial aspect of cerebral hemispheres
Also within the diencephalon
Composed of:
Septal nuclei, cingulate gyrus, and hippocampal
formation
Part of the amygdala
The fornix and other tracts link the limbic
system together
119. 15-119
Functional Brain Systems – The
Limbic System
The “emotional brain”
Cingulate gyrus
Allows us to shift between thoughts
Interprets pain as unpleasant
Hippocampal formation
Hippocampus and the parahippocampal
gyrus
120. 15-120
Functional Brain Systems – The
Reticular Formation
Runs through the central core of the
medulla, pons, and midbrain
Forms three columns
Midline raphe nuclei
Medial nuclear group
Lateral nuclear group
122. 15-122
Functional Brain Systems – The
Reticular Formation
Widespread connections
Ideal for arousal of the brain as a whole
Reticular activating system (RAS)
Maintains consciousness and alertness
Functions in sleep and arousal from sleep