The document provides details on traditional Chinese architectural styles during the Ming Dynasty and earlier periods. Some key aspects discussed include the use of symmetry, bilateral symmetry, and hierarchy in building layouts. Structures often featured enclosed courtyards, heavy platforms, and large rooftops emphasizing horizontal spread over vertical height. Materials like wood, brick, and stone were used, with wooden structures less likely to survive. Structural elements included load-bearing columns, bracketing systems, and joinery without nails/glue allowing flexibility. Roof designs incorporated symbolism and varied by class from single to multi-inclined styles. Commoner, imperial and religious structures each had distinguishing characteristics.

1. Prof. Amal Shah, Faculty of Design, CEPT University
HISTORY OF DESIGN
A JOU RNEY INTO T H E H ISTORY OF A RC H IT EC T U RE A ND INT ERIOR D ES IG N
FAR EASTERN STYLES
C h i n a ( M i n g D y n a s t y ) | J a p a n ( S h o g u n P e r i o d )

2. China during the Ming Dynasty
Factors governing the Era
The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) ruled before the establishment of
the Ming dynasty. Zhu declared the founding of the Ming dynasty after razing
the Yuan palaces in Dadu to the ground; the city was renamed Beiping in the
same year. The Hongwu emperor issued many edicts forbidding Mongol
practices and proclaiming his intention to purify China of barbarian influence.
It was during this era that China commanded influence of much of East Asia,
Vietnam, and Myanmar to the south, while also expanding its sphere of control
to the Turks in the west. Yet, the reign of the Ming dynasty has come and gone.
What remains, however, is the spectacular architecture produced during this
time. Builders of the period made use of existing techniques but also
incorporated brick into its great walls and palaces.
Early Ming Emperors built Taoist temples to show
their power, like the Golden Hall in the Wudang
Mountains. But the great achievement of the Ming
Dynasty architects was that they built the great
palace called the Forbidden City.

3. Corner tower of the Forbidden City, Beijing
Ancient Chinese architecture
The architecture of china is as old as Chinese civilization. From
every source of information—literary, graphic, exemplary—there
is strong evidence testifying to the fact that the Chinese have
always enjoyed an indigenous system of construction that has
retained its principal characteristics from prehistoric times to the
present day. Over the vast area from Chinese Turkistan to japan,
from Manchuria to the northern half of French Indochina, the
same system of construction is prevalent; and this was the area of
Chinese cultural influence.
That this system of construction could perpetuate itself for more
than four thousand years over such A vast territory and still
remain A living architecture, retaining its principal characteristics
in spite of repeated foreign invasions—military, intellectual, and
spiritual—is A phenomenon comparable only to the continuity of
the civilization of which it is an integral part.
— Liang, ssu-ch'eng, 1984.
Chinese architecture is a style of architecture that has taken
shape in East Asia over many centuries. The structural principles
of Chinese architecture have remained largely unchanged, the
main changes being only the decorative details. Since the Tang
Dynasty, Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the
architectural styles of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan.

4. ARCHITECTURAL BILATERAL SYMMETRY
A very important feature in Chinese architecture is its emphasis on
articulation and bilateral symmetry, which signifies balance. Bilateral
symmetry and the articulation of buildings are found everywhere in
Chinese architecture, from palace complexes to humble farmhouses.
When possible, plans for renovation and extension of a house will
often try to maintain this symmetry provided that there is enough
capital to do so. Secondary elements are positioned either side of main
structures as two wings to maintain overall bilateral symmetry. The
buildings are typically planned to contain an even number of columns
in a structure to produce an odd number of bays. With the inclusion of
a main door to a building in the center bay, symmetry is maintained.
In contrast to the buildings, Chinese gardens are a notable exception
which tend to be asymmetrical. The principle underlying the garden's
composition is A sancai (tri-colored) ceramic mansion from the Tang
Dynasty (618-907), excavated from a Tang era tomb at Zhongbu
village in the western suburbs of Xi'an.
The rectangular compound shown above has two sections of
courtyards. The buildings on the axle line include central entrance,
four-pointed pavilion, mountain-shaped front hall, artificial mountain
and ponds, eight-pointed pavilion and mountain-shaped retiring
quarters. The two sides of the central axle are arranged with corridor
rooms symmetrically.

5. ENCLOSURE
In much of traditional Chinese
architecture, buildings or building
complexes take up an entire
property but enclose open spaces
within themselves. These enclosed
spaces come in two forms, the:
Courtyard: The use of open
courtyards is a common feature in
many types of Chinese
architectures. This is best
exemplified in the Siheyuan, which
has consisted of an empty space
surrounded by buildings connected
with one another either directly or
through verandas.
"Sky well” : Although large open
courtyards are less commonly
found in southern Chinese
architecture, the concept of an
"open space" surrounded by
buildings, which is seen in
northern courtyard complexes, can
be seen in the southern building
structure known as the "sky well".
This structure is essentially a
relatively enclosed courtyard
formed from the intersections of
closely spaced buildings and offer
small opening to the sky through
the roof space from the floor up.
These enclosures serve in
temperature regulation and in
venting the building complexes.
Northern courtyards are typically
open and facing the south to allow
the maximum exposure of the
building windows and walls to the
sun while keeping the cold
northern winds out. Southern sky
wells are relatively small and
serves to collect rain water from
the roof tops. They perform the
same duties as the Roman
impluvium while restricting the
amount of sunlight that enters the
building. Sky wells also serve as
vents for rising hot air, which
draws cool air from the lower
stories of the house and allows for
exchange of cool air with the
outside.
A tulou outer building encloses a smaller circular building, which encloses
an ancestral hall and courtyard in the center.
A dugout dwelling enclosing an underground
courtyard.

6. HIERARCHY
A tomb mural of Xinzhou, dated to the Northern Qi
(550-577 AD) period, showing a hall with a tiled roof,
dougong brackets, and doors with giant door knockers
(perhaps made of bronze)
The projected hierarchy and importance and uses of
buildings in traditional Chinese architecture are based
on the strict placement of buildings in a
property/complex. Buildings with doors facing the
front of the property are considered more important
than those facing the sides. Buildings facing away from
the front of the property are the least important.
South-facing buildings in the rear and more private
location of the property with higher exposure to
sunlight are held in higher esteem and reserved for
elder members of the family or ancestral plaques.
Buildings facing east and west are generally for junior
members of the family, while buildings near the front
are typically for servants and hired help.
Front-facing buildings in the back of properties are
used particularly for rooms of celebratory rites and for
the placement of ancestral halls and plaques. In
multiple courtyard complexes, central courtyards and
their buildings are considered more important than
peripheral ones, the latter typically being used as
storage or servants’ rooms or kitchens.

7. HORIZONTAL EMPHASIS
Classical Chinese buildings, especially those of the wealthy, are built with an emphasis on breadth and less on height, featuring an enclosed heavy
platform and a large roof that floats over this base, with the vertical walls not well emphasized. This contrasts Western architecture, which tends to grow
in height and depth. Chinese architecture stresses the visual impact of the width of the buildings.
The halls and palaces in the Forbidden City, for example, have rather low ceilings when compared to equivalent stately buildings in the West, but their
external appearances suggest the all-embracing nature of imperial China. These ideas have found their way into modern Western architecture, for
example through the work of Jørn Utzon. This of course does not apply to pagodas, which are limited to religious building complexes.
The Forbidden City, viewed from Jingshan Hill to the north, showing the emphasized horizontal spread of the buildings in the complex.
The Forbidden City, viewed from Jingshan Hill to the north, showing the emphasized horizontal spread of the buildings in the complex.

8. COSMOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
Model of a Chinese Siheyuan in Beijing, which
shows off the symmetry, enclosed heavy
platform and a large roof that floats over this
base, with the vertical walls not as well
emphasized.
Chinese architecture from early times used
concepts from Chinese cosmology such as feng
shui (geomancy) and Taoism to organize
construction and layout from common
residences to imperial and religious structures.
This includes the use of: Screen walls to face the
main entrance of the house, which stems from
the belief that evil things travel in straight lines.
Talismans and imagery of good fortune:
Door gods displayed on doorways to ward off
evil and encourage the flow of good fortune
Three anthropomorphic figures representing Fu
Orienting the structure with its back to elevated
landscape and ensuring that there is water in
the front. Considerations are also made such
that the generally windowless back of the
structure faces the north, where the wind is
coldest in the winter.
Ponds, pools, wells, and other water sources are
usually built into the structure. The use of
certain colors, numbers and the cardinal
directions in traditional Chinese architecture
reflected the belief in a type of immanence,
where the nature of a thing could be wholly
contained in its own form.
Model of a Chinese Siheyuan in Beijing, which
shows off the symmetry, enclosed heavy platform
and a large roof that floats over this base, with the
vertical walls not as well emphasized.

9. MATERIALS AND HISTORY
Unlike other building construction materials,
old wooden structures often do not survive
because they are more vulnerable to
weathering and fires and are naturally
subjected to rotting over time. Although now-
nonexistent wooden residential towers,
watchtowers, and pagodas predated it by
centuries, the Songyue Pagoda built in 523 is
the oldest extant pagoda in China; its use of
brick instead of wood had much to do with its
endurance throughout the centuries.
In the early 20th century there were no known
fully wood-constructed Tang Dynasty buildings
that still existed.
the East Hall of Foguang Temple features only
seven types of bracket arms in its construction,
the 11th century Pagoda of Fogong Temple
features a total of fifty-four.
The earliest walls and platforms in China were
of rammed earth construction, and over time
brick and stone became more frequently used.
This can be seen in ancient sections of the Great
Wall of China, while the brick and stone Great
Wall seen today is a renovation of the Ming
Dynasty (1368–1644).
A stone-carved pillar-gate, or que , 6 m (20 ft) in total
height, located at the tomb of Gao Yi in Ya'an, Sichuan
province, Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD); notice the
stone-carved decorations of roof tile eaves, despite the
fact that Han Dynasty stone que lacked wooden or
ceramic components

10. STRUCTURE
Mortise and tenon work of tie beams and cross beams,
from Li Jie's building manual Yingzao Fashi, printed in
1103.
Foundations: Most buildings are typically erected on
raised platforms as their foundations. Vertical structural
beams may rest on raised stone pedestals which
occasionally rest on piles. In lower class construction, the
platforms are constructed of rammed earth platforms that
are unpaved or paved with brick or ceramics. In the
simplest cases vertical structural beams are driven into
the ground directly. Upper class constructions typically
have high raised stone paved rammed earth or stone
foundations with ornately carved heavy stone pedestals
for supporting large vertical structural beams. The vertical
beams rest and remain on their pedestals solely by
friction and the pressure exerted by the building
structure.
Structural beams: Use of large structural timbers for
primary support of the roof of a building. Wooden timber,
usually large trimmed logs, are used as load-bearing
columns and lateral beams for framing buildings and
supporting the roofs. These beams are connected to each
other directly or, in larger and higher class structures, tied
indirectly together through the use of brackets. These
structural timbers are prominently displayed in finished
structures. It is not definitively known how the ancient
builders raised the huge wooden load bearing columns
into position.
These rammed earth ruins of a granary in Hecang Fortress, located ~11 km (7 miles)
northeast of the Western-Han-era Yumen Pass, were built during the Western Han (202 BC
- 9 AD) and significantly rebuilt during the Western Jin (280-316 AD).
Mortise and tenon work of tie beams and cross
beams, from Li Jie's building manual Yingzao
Fashi, printed in 1103.

11. Structural connections: Timber frames are typically
constructed with joinery and doweling alone, seldom
with the use of glue or nails. These types of semi-rigid
structural joints allow the timber structure to resist
bending and torsion while under high compression.
Structural stability is further ensured through the use
of heavy beams and roofs, which weighs the structure
down. The lack of glue or nails in joinery, the use of
non-rigid support such as dougong, and the used of
wood as structural members allow the buildings to
slide, flex, and hinge while absorbing shock, vibration,
and groundshift from earthquakes without significant
damage to its structure.
Walls: The common use of curtain walls or door
panels to delineate rooms or enclose a building, with
the general de-emphasis of load-bearing walls in
most higher class construction. However, with the
reduction in availability of trees in the later dynasties
for building structures, the use of load-bearing walls
in non-governmental or religious construction
increased, with brick and stone being commonly
used.
Roofs: Flat roofs are uncommon while gabled roofs
are almost omnipresent in traditional Chinese
architecture. Roofs are either built on roof cross-
beams or rest directly on vertical structural beams. In
higher class construction, roof supporting beams are
supported through complex dougong bracketing
systems that indirectly connect them to the primary
structural beams.
Three main types of roofs are found:
Straight inclined: Roofs with a single incline. These
are the most economical type of roofing and are most
prevalent in commoner architectures.
1. xuanshan, Overhanging gable roof
2. yingshan, flush gable roof
3. wudian, Hip roof
4. xieshan, Gable and Hip Roofs
5. cuanjian, Pyramidal Roof
6. zhongyan, Double-eaved versions (of 4, 3)
7-9. Double-Eaved versions of 5, 6, 3

12. Multi-inclined: Roofs with 2 or more sections of incline.
These roofs are used in higher class constructions, from the
dwellings of wealthy commoners to palaces.
Sweeping: Roofs with a sweeping curvature that rises at the
corners of the roof. This type of roof construction is usually
reserved for temples and palaces although it may also be
found in the homes of the wealthy. In the former cases, the
ridges of the roof are usually highly decorated with ceramic
figurines.
Roof apex: The roof apex of a large hall is usually topped
with a ridge of tiles and statues for both decorative purposes
as well as to weigh down the layers of roofing tiles for
stability. These ridges are often well decorated, especially for
religious or palatial structures. In some regions of China, the
ridges are sometimes extended or incorporated into the
walls of the building to form matouqiang (horse-head walls),
which serve as a fire deterrent from drifting embers.
Roof top decorations: Symbolism can be found from colors
of the eaves, roofing materials and roof top decorations.
Gold/yellow is an auspicious (good) color, imperial roofs are
gold or yellow. They are usually used by the emperor. Green
roofs symbolize bamboo shafts, which, in turn, represent
youth and longevity.

13. ARCHITECTURAL TYPES
Commoner
The houses of commoners, be they bureaucrats, merchants or farmers, tended to follow a set pattern: the center of the building would be a shrine for
the deities and the ancestors, which would also be used during festivities. On its two sides were bedrooms for the elders; the two wings of the building
(known as "guardian dragons" by the Chinese) were for the junior members of the family, as well as the living room, the dining room, and the kitchen,
although sometimes the living room could be very close to the center.
Sometimes the extended families became so large that one or even two extra pairs of "wings" had to be built. This resulted in a U-shaped building,
with a courtyard suitable for farm work. Merchants and bureaucrats, however, preferred to close off the front with an imposing front gate. All
buildings were legally regulated, and the law held that the number of stories, the length of the building and the colours used depended on the owner's
class. Some commoners living in areas plagued by bandits built communal fortresses called Tulou for protection.

14. Imperial
There were certain architectural features that were
reserved solely for buildings built for the Emperor of
China. One example is the use of yellow roof tiles,
yellow having been the Imperial color; yellow roof tiles
still adorn most of the buildings within the Forbidden
City. The Temple of Heaven, however, uses blue roof
tiles to symbolize the sky. The roofs are almost
invariably supported by brackets ("dougong"), a
feature shared only with the largest of religious
buildings. The wooden columns of the buildings, as
well as the surfaces of the walls, tend to be red in color.
Black is also a famous color often used in pagodas. It
was believed that the gods are inspired by the black
color to descend to the earth.
The Chinese 5-clawed dragon, adopted by the first
Ming emperor for his personal use, was used as
decoration on the beams, pillars, and on the doors on
Imperial architecture. Curiously, the dragon was never
used on roofs of imperial buildings.
Only the buildings used by the imperial family were
allowed to have nine jian, space between two
columns); only the gates used by the Emperor could
have five arches, with the centre one, of course, being
reserved for the Emperor himself. The ancient Chinese
favored the color red. The buildings faced south
because the north had a cold wind.
A vaulted tomb chamber in Luoyang, built during
the Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 25–220)
A tomb chamber of Luoyang, built during the
Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 25–220) with
incised wall decorations
The Great Red Gate at the Ming Tombs
near Beijing, built in the 15th century

15. Beijing became the capital of China after the Mongol invasion of the
13th century, completing the easterly migration of the Chinese capital
begun since the Jin dynasty. The Ming uprising in 1368 reasserted
Chinese authority and fixed Beijing as the seat of imperial power for the
next five centuries. The Emperor and the Empress lived in palaces on
the central axis of the Forbidden City, the Crown Prince at the eastern
side, and the concubines at the back (therefore the numerous imperial
concubines were often referred to as "The Back Palace Three
Thousand"). However, during the mid-Qing Dynasty, the Emperor's
residence was moved to the western side of the complex. It is
misleading to speak of an axis in the Western sense of a visual
perspective ordering facades, rather the Chinese axis is a line of
privilege, usually built upon, regulating access—there are no vistas, but
a series of gates and pavilions.
Numerology heavily influenced Imperial Architecture, hence the use of
nine in much of construction (nine being the greatest single digit
number) and the reason why the Forbidden City in Beijing is said to
have 9,999.9 rooms—just short of the mythical 10,000 rooms in
heaven. The importance of the East (the direction of the rising sun) in
orienting and siting Imperial buildings is a form of solar worship found
in many ancient cultures, where there is the notion of Ruler being
affiliated with the Sun.
The tombs and mausoleums of imperial family members, such as the
8th century Tang Dynasty tombs at the Qianling Mausoleum, can also be
counted as part of the imperial tradition in architecture. These above-
ground earthen mounds and pyramids had subterranean shaft-and-
vault structures that were lined with brick walls since at least the
Warring States (481–221 BC).
Que towers along the walls of Tang-era Chang'an, as
depicted in this 8th-century mural from Prince Li
Chongrun's tomb at the Qianling Mausoleum in Shaanxi

16. Religious
Generally speaking, Buddhist architecture follows the imperial
style. A large Buddhist monastery normally has a front hall,
housing the statue of a Bodhisattva, followed by a great hall,
housing the statues of the Buddhas. Accommodations for the
monks and the nuns are located at the two sides. Some of the
greatest examples of this come from the 18th century Puning
Temple and Putuo Zongcheng Temple. Buddhist monasteries
sometimes also have pagodas, which may house the relics of the
Gautama Buddha; older pagodas tend to be four-sided, while
later pagodas usually have eight sides.
Daoist architecture, on the other hand, usually follows the
commoners' style. The main entrance is, however, usually at the
side, out of superstition about demons which might try to enter
the premise (see feng shui.) In contrast to the Buddhists, in a
Daoist temple the main deity is located in the main hall at the
front, the lesser deities in the back hall and at the sides.
The tallest pre-modern building in China was built for both
religious and martial purposes. The Liaodi Pagoda of 1055 AD
stands at a height of 84 m (276 ft), and although it served as the
crowning pagoda of the Kaiyuan monastery in old Dingzhou,
Hebei, it was also used as a military watchtower for Song
Dynasty soldiers to observe potential Liao Dynasty enemy
movements.
The architecture of the mosques and gongbei tomb shrines of
China's Muslims often combines traditional Chinese styles with
Middle Eastern influences.
The Fogong Temple Pagoda,
located in Ying county,
Shanxi province, built in
1056 during the Liao
Dynasty, is the oldest
existent fully wooden
pagoda in China
The Temple of Heaven in Beijing, built in the
15th century during the Ming Dynasty
Island Pagoda, about 1871, from the album,
Foochow and the River Min

17. Chinese classifications for
architecture include:
•亭 ting Chinese pavilions
•臺 tai terraces
•樓 lou Multistory buildings
•閣 ge Two-story pavilions
•軒 xuan Verandas with windows
•塔 ta Chinese pagodas
•榭 xie Pavilions or houses on terraces
•屋 wu Rooms along roofed corridors
•斗拱 dougong interlocking wooden
brackets, often used in clusters to
support roofs and add ornamentation.
•藻井 Caisson domed or coffered
ceiling

19. Forbidden city is was the palace of the
Ming Dynasty emperors, in Beijing, and it
was the centre of the government of
China. It was called the Forbidden City
because nobody could go in or out
without the emperor's permission.
In the “pavilion concept,” whereby each
building is conceived of as a freestanding
rectilinear unit, flexibility in the overall
design is achieved by increasing the
number of such units, which are arranged
together with open, connecting galleries
skirting around rectilinear courtyards;
diversity is achieved through design
variations that individualize these
courtyard complexes. In the private house
or mansion.

23. The main frames of all palaces are built of
wood. The wooden beams and columns (the
column is the upright post; the beam sits on
top of the column) are the most important
elements, while the walls, using to separate
space, are auxiliary structures. Therefore,
windows can be designed flexibly and made
for different needs.
The bracket, using to bearing the weight, is
also a typical structure in ancient
architecture. In Ming and Qing Dynasty,
these capitals were no longer used to
support the house and absorb the effects of
earthquakes, but only for decoration.
Various categories of decorations used
leaves people a feeling of mystery.
Colour Painting is one form of decorations in
Chinese ancient buildings, which is used not
only decoratively, but also to protect the
wooden structure from deterioration. The
motifs of Colour Painting are dragons and
phoenixes. Three categories of colour
painting are used - imperial pattern
paintings, tangent circle pattern paintings
and Suzhou style pattern paintings.

24. The Modular System of Chinese
Architecture
One of the basic principles of classical
Chinese buildings is the use of a
module, much like the modular
concept of prefabrication in
contemporary architecture.
Traditional Chinese carpenters used
“Jian” – a structured bay as a standard
unit to construct all buildings. “Jian”
was a rectangular space marked by
adjacent structural frames. “Jian”, as
the basic interior unit, can be
expanded or repeated along the
architectural plan axis to join together
to create a hall, then a building. Along
a longer axis, several buildings can be
connected around a traditional
Chinese courtyard to form a
traditional Chinese courtyard house.
Several traditional Chinese courtyard
house units along the city plan axis
create a small street district.
A number of such districts form a
grid-like network based on the longer
city plan axis with palaces,
government buildings and other
public buildings in the center. This is
typical of traditional Chinese cities.
pillars in the floor plan, the code
symbols of the basic plan unit in a
traditional Chinese building. Thus,
understanding of the “Jian”, the
modular standardized units of
traditional Chinese architecture, will
help us better understand the space
concepts of classical Chinese
architecture and the method of
design.

25. Different
forms of
religious
architecture
(Buddhist)

26. Chinese Furnishings
The best- known examples of Chinese furniture of fi
ne design date from the Ming dynasty. Armchairs of
great elegance were produced in hardwoods such as
certain rosewoods and sandalwoods.
Couches, beds, cabinets, and tables were also made
to serve in palace interiors and in the houses of the
wealthy. Lacquer finishes in red and other colours
also came into use. Most traditional Chinese
furniture
uses little or no ornament, although carved screens
and brackets are sometimes used to help with the
bracing of table structures.
Cabinets are usually of great simplicity, with
polished brass hardware forming the only
ornament. Chinese wallpaper, with images of
landscapes, animals, and human figures, appeared.
The simple unornamented design of this arm chair,
made from huanghuali wood, is typical of the fi ne
furniture made for use in houses of wealthy citizens.
This cabinet is of great simplicity, in red lacquer,
with brass hardware providing the only element of
ornament.

27. Chinese Furnishings
Rugs were made in the eighteenth century, and
were produced for export as well as being used in
Chinese interiors.
Silk textiles were made in China as early as
the second century BC and have continued to
be produced in fi ne designs until modern times;
however, textiles were most used in apparel, and
have had no major role in interiors.
Chinese rugs were generally woven in silk,
a fragile material that does not last long. As a
result, no Chinese rugs survive from before the
fifteenth century. Many rugs from the Ming
dynasty were made for the imperial court and
for wealthy citizens. Rugs from this period are
among the earliest Chinese rugs to survive, as
a result of their increasing use of cotton fibres
along with silk.

28. Modern Japan
Edo period (1600–1868)
The Edo period was characterized by relative peace and
stability[129] under the tight control of the Tokugawa
shogunate, which ruled from the eastern city of Edo (modern
Tokyo).
The Tokugawa shogunate went to great lengths to suppress
social unrest. Harsh penalties, including crucifixion,
beheading, and death by boiling, were decreed for even the
most minor offenses, though criminals of high social class
were often given the option of seppuku ("self-
disembowelment"), an ancient form of suicide that now
became ritualized. Christianity, which was seen as a potential
threat, was gradually clamped down upon.
During the first century of Tokugawa rule, Japan's population
doubled to thirty million, due in large part to agricultural
growth; the population remained stable for the rest of the
period. The shogunate's construction of roads, elimination of
road and bridge tolls, and standardization of coinage
promoted commercial expansion that also benefited the
merchants and artisans of the cities.
The Edo period was a time of prolific cultural output. Haiku,
rose as a major form of poetry. By the late eighteenth and
early nineteenth centuries, the shogunate showed signs of
weakening.
辞世とは
即ちまよひ
たゞ死なん
Jisei to wa
sunawachi mayoi
tada shinan
Death poems
are mere delusion —
death is death.
我死なば
酒屋の瓶の下にいけよ
もしや雫の
もりやせんなん
Ware shinaba
sakaya no kame no
shita ni ikeyo moshi ya shizuku no
moriyasennan
Bury me when I die
beneath a wine barrel
in a tavern. With luck the cask will leak.

29. Religion in Japan
Edo period (1600–1868)
Religion in Japan is dominated by Shinto (the
ethnic religion of the Japanese people) and by
Buddhist schools and organisations.
The word Shinto ("way of the gods") was adopted,
originally as Shindo, combining two kanji: "shin" (
神?), meaning "spirit" or kami; and "tō" (道?),
meaning a philosophical path or study (from the
Chinese word dào).
Since Japanese language does not distinguish
between singular and plural, kami refers to the
divinity, or sacred essence, that manifests in
multiple forms: rocks, trees, rivers, animals, places,
and even people can be said to possess the nature
of kami.
Buddhism
Buddhism (仏教 Bukkyō) first arrived in Japan in
the 6th century.

30. General features of Japanese traditional
architecture
Much in the traditional architecture of Japan is not
native, but was imported from China and other Asian
cultures over the centuries. Japanese traditional
architecture and its history are as a consequence
dominated by Chinese and Asian techniques and
styles.
The general structure is almost always the same:
posts and lintels support a large and gently curved
roof, while the walls are paper-thin, often movable
and in any case non-carrying. Arches and barrel roofs
are completely absent.
The roof is the most visually impressive component,
often constituting half the size of the whole edifice.
Inner space divisions are fluid, and room size can be
modified through the use of screens or movable paper
walls. The large, single space offered by the main hall
can therefore be divided according to the need.
The use of construction modules keeps proportions
between different parts of the edifice constant,
preserving its overall harmony.

31. The ken (間?) is a traditional Japanese unit of length, equal to six Japanese feet (shaku). The exact value has varied over
time and location but has generally been a little shorter than 2 meters (6 ft 7 in). This kanji graphically combines 門
"door" and 日 "sun". The earlier variant character 閒 was written with 月 "moon" rather than "sun", depicting "A 門 door
through the crevice of which the 月 moonshine peeps in".

32. The Tokugawa Shogunate took the city of Edo (later to
become part of modern-day Tōkyō) as their capital. They
built an imposing fortress around which buildings of the
state administration and residences for the provincial
daimyōs were constructed. The city grew around these
buildings connected by a network of roads and canals. By
1700 the population had swollen to one million inhabitants.
The scarcity of space for residential architecture resulted in
houses being built over two stories, often constructed on
raised stone plinths.

33. Himeji Castle

34. In the harshly controlled feudal society governed for over 250 years
by the descendants of Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542–1616), creativity
came not from its leaders, a conservative military class, but from the
two lower classes in the Confucian social hierarchy, the artisans and
merchants. Although officially denigrated, they were free to reap the
economic and social benefits of this prosperous age.

35. Kyoto
In Japanese, the city has been called Kyō (京),
Miyako (都), or Kyō no Miyako (京の都). In
the 11th century, the city was renamed Kyoto
("capital city")
Formerly the Imperial capital of Japan for more
than one thousand years, it is now the capital
city of Kyoto Prefecture located in the Kansai
region, as well as a major part of the Kyoto-
Osaka-Kobe metropolitan area. Kyoto is also
known as the thousand-year capital.

37. The shariden at Rokuon-ji,
commonly known as the Golden Pavilion
(Kinkakuji").
The pavilion successfully incorporates
three distinct styles of architecture
which are shinden, samurai, and zen,
specifically on each floor.
The first floor, called The Chamber of
Dharma Waters, The second floor, called
The Tower of Sound Waves, It is called the
Cupola of the Ultimate.

39. KATSURA IMPERIAL VILLA
BUILT 1620-1663
The Katsura Imperial Villa, or Katsura Detached
Palace, is a villa with associated gardens and
outbuildings in the western suburbs of Kyoto, Japan. It
is one of Japan's most important large-scale cultural
treasures.
Its gardens are considered a masterpiece of Japanese
gardening, and the buildings are regarded among the
greatest achievements of Japanese architecture. The
palace includes a shoin ("drawing room"), tea houses,
and a strolling garden.

40. HISTORY
Prince Hachijō Toshihito was the founder of the Katsura
Imperial Villa.
Toshihito obtained land along the south bank of the
Katsura River, the location of the novel the Tales of
Genji, he set out to construct a villa modeled on
passages from it.
By 1624, he had devoted more of his resources to the
expansion of the villa, and it was recorded that hills had
been formed and a pond had been dug in the middle of
the garden. A priest that visited Katsura in 1624 wrote
that it had the “finest view in Japan”. By 1631, the villa
was called a “palace”.
With the section of the villa his father built known as
the “Old Shoin”, Toshitada constructed the main house,
as well as several teahouses, and these became part of
the section called the “Middle Shoin”. After these
renovations, the fame of the Katsura villa grew.
It is said that the New Palace, also called the “Imperial-
Visit Palace”, was built to accommodate the ex-Emperor
while he was visiting.

42. Connections to traditional Japanese
and Buddhist ideas
The Katsura Imperial Villa is a good example of
the essence of Japanese traditional design. The
Villa combines principles usually used in early
Shinto shrines and merges it with the esthetics
and philosophy of Zen Buddhism.
Villa incorporates many traditional Japanese
ideas. One example of Katsura's use of
traditional ideas is its use of raised floors with
tatami mats covering them. Tatami are mats
approximately 3 feet by 6 feet in length that are
not only used as the floors of the villa, but are
also used to define the dimensions of each
individual room and the house as a whole.At
Katsura, the mats are used to create the
sprawling and pinwheel-like plan that it has
today.
The terraces and porches created by the
arrangement of the tatami mats provide
opportunities to view the landscape and link
interior spaces with the outside world. The
floors of each building of the site are also raised
as well, which originally was derived from
vernacular designs for granaries, as well as early
imperial palaces. They serve the purpose of both
keeping the floor dry while also giving hierarchy
to the space.

43. Another classic characteristic that the
Katsura Imperial Villa utilizes is the
use of screen walls (the shoji and the
fusuma). In traditional Japanese
Architecture, the shoji and the fusuma
are used to separate the spaces created
by the tatami mat into the various
rooms of the house.
The shoji is the generic term for the
white and translucent screen door
or wall that is reinforced with wooden
lattice and can either be stationary,
hanging, or sliding.
The fusuma is a subcategory of the
shoji and it is the white or painted
moving screen partition used on the
interior of the house. By moving the
fusuma, when in conjunction with a
stationary shoji, the resident is able to
create new rooms within the
architecture.

44. At the Katsura Imperial Villa, the tea
houses are perfect examples of how Zen
Buddhism has affected the architecture and
landscape. The tea ceremony, performed at
the pavilions, is a very important part of
Japanese society because it is a spiritual
ritual symbolizing detached perfection in
the Zen tradition, and it has greatly affected
the architecture and landscape around it to
enhance the experience one receives while
in the ceremony.
The five different tea houses are all
separated from the main building and are
isolated from everything except for the
nature around them; to reach each
building, one must take a path that doesn’t
reveal the view of the pavilion until the
very last moment.

45. The tea houses also use rustic
elements such as bark covered
wooden supports or irregular
shaped wooden pieces as extensions
of the natural world, for the tea
ceremony aims at fusing the
spiritual and the natural.
Additionally, the tea houses account
for many experiences while you are
inside of it.
The windows and apertures in the
pavilion are at eye level when sitting
so that one can feel more in tune
and closer to nature. Finally, the
interior of the buildings were
planned so that the designers
imparted their reverence for the
materials and spatial harmony,
which are intended to promote
reflection that will achieve inward
simplicity and tranquility of the
mind.

46. Buildings and gardens
The Old Shoin, Middle Shoin and New Palace are
each in the shoin style, with irimoya kokerabuki
roofs. The Old Shoin was constructed by Prince
Toshihito. It is composed of rooms with nine,
ten, and fifteen tatami, and has ceilings
supported by wooden slats. On the southern
side, there is a room with a veranda attached,
which shows elements of the sukiya style. A
bamboo platform, created for moon-viewing,
extends beyond the veranda. The Old Shoin was
most likely built to accommodate a large
amount of people at informal gatherings.
Compared to the Old Shoin, The Middle Shoin
appears stiff. It is arranged in an L-shape, and at
one end there is a tokonoma, and to its right
there is a chigaidana (a staggered group of
ornamental shelves). The walls of the tokonoma
and chigaidana are decorated with ink paintings
of landscapes, as well as the Seven Sages of the
Bamboo Grove. The Middle Shoin is said to have
been built as the prince’s living quarters, which
is evidenced by a bath and toilet. A veranda ran
along two sides of the Middle Shoin and faced
the garden.

47. The New Palace features a large hipped-and-gabled roof, as well as a veranda enclosed by wooden shutters. The design of the
New Palace is more structured than the Old and Middle Shoin, and is composed of an eight-mat room, a six-mat room, and a
three-mat area that are arranged into an L-shape. There is a coffered ceiling, and an alcove containing a large window. The
Katsura Shelves are especially noteworthy, and are located in the corner opposite of the entrance. Other rooms in the New
Palace are the imperial bedchamber, the consort’s dressing room, a pantry, a wardrobe, a bath, a toilet, and a washroom.

48. The Geppa-rō, also known
as the “Moon-wave Tower,”
has a view overlooking the
pond. Although it is only
fifteen by twenty-four feet
in area, it is known for its
spatial effect due to its
exposed ceiling and roof
structure.
The roof is supported by
four slanting beams that
rise from the corners of the
building with a ridge pole
that is further supported by
a curving king pole resting
on a tie beam. This creates a
unique spatial effect as the
roof has a decorated
underside that exposes the
beams and rafters.

49. Across the pond from the Geppa-rō is
the Shōkin-tei, also known as the “Pine-
Lute Pavilion.” The pavilions contrast
one another, as the Geppa-rō is active
and situated on higher ground looking
down onto the pond whereas the
Shōkin-tei is less active and elevated not
far above the water level.
The most prominent and unusual aspect
of the teahouse is the unfloored loggia.
It is facing the pond with an open
pantry in the center for tea ceremonies.
Additionally, three oak logs in their
natural states support the extended
eaves of the loggia. With the thatched
roof, the roughness of the pavilion
resembles a rustic kiosk. A prominent
feature in the interior is the heavy
papering with a blue-and-white
checkered pattern on walls of the
tokonoma and sliding doors between
the First and Second rooms.