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How does the cell convert DNA into working proteins? The process of translation can be seen as the decoding of instructions for making proteins, involving mRNA in transcription as well as tRNA.
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DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid.
DNA carries the genetic information in the cell – i.e. it carries the instructions for making all the structures and materials the body needs to function.
DNA is capable of self-replication.
Most of the cell’s DNA is carried in the nucleus – a small amount is contained in the mitochondria.
KEY CONCEPTS
13.1 Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting
chromosomes
13.2 Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles
13.3 Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid
13.4 Genetic variation produced in sexual life cycles contributes to evolution
DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid.
DNA carries the genetic information in the cell – i.e. it carries the instructions for making all the structures and materials the body needs to function.
DNA is capable of self-replication.
Most of the cell’s DNA is carried in the nucleus – a small amount is contained in the mitochondria.
KEY CONCEPTS
13.1 Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting
chromosomes
13.2 Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles
13.3 Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid
13.4 Genetic variation produced in sexual life cycles contributes to evolution
Which of the following correctly matches a phase of the cell cycle wit.pdfrajeshmozi
Which of the following correctly matches a phase of the cell cycle with its description? View
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How are sistor chromatis and homologous chromosomes different from each other? View
Available Hint(s) Homologous chromosomes are identical coples of each ofher. One sister
chromatid comes from the father, and one combs from the mother: Homologous chromosomes
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each onor during mibes. In a typical animal, mitosis produces while meiosis produces View
Available Hint(s) four diploid daughter cells ... four haploid daughter cells two diploid daughter
cells ... four haploid daughter cells two diploid daughter cells ... two diploid daughter cells two
diploid daughter cells ... two haploid daughter cells four haploid daughter cells ... two diploid
daughter cells Which of the following occurs during meiosis but not during mitosis? View
Available Hint(s) Synapsis occurs. Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate. A spindle
apparatus forms. Chromosomes migrate to opposite poles. Chromosomes condense. Which of the
following is true of an X-linked gene but not of a Y-linked gene View Available Hint(s) It is
expressed in half of the cells of either males or females. Sister chromatids separate during
mitosis. The gene is present in both males and females. It does not segregate like other genes. It
is only expressed in female offspring..
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2. z
9.1 An Overview
of Meiosis
In this section, the following objectives
will be covered:
Explain the purpose of meiosis.
Describe the human life cycle
differentiating between diploid and
haploid stages.
Explain the significance of synapsis
and crossing over.
3. z
Meiosis
Meiosis serves two major functions:
Reducing chromosome number
Shuffling chromosomes in the cell
to produce genetically different
gametes
4. z
Homologous
Chromosomes
Members of a
pair of
chromosomes
Also called
homologues
Have the
same size,
shape, and
construction
(location of
centromere)
Contain the
same genes
for the same
traits
5. z
Homologous Chromosomes
and Sexual Reproduction
A child receives one member of each homologous pair
from each parent.
Homologous pairs may contain different versions of
the same gene
Alleles—alternate forms of a gene
Both males and females have 23 pairs of
chromosomes.
23 pairs or 46 total chromosomes = diploid (2n)
Haploid number (n) in gametes—23 total chromosomes
22 pairs of autosomes
1 pair of sex chromosomes
XX female or XY male
7. z
Human Life Cycle
Life cycle—in sexually reproducing organisms refers to all the
reproductive events that occur from one generation to the next
Involves both mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis involved in continued growth of a child and repair of
tissues throughout life
As a result, somatic (body) cells are diploid.
Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid.
Gametes (egg and sperm) have only one member of each
homologous pair.
Spermatogenesis produces sperm in the testes.
Oogenesis produces eggs in the ovaries.
Egg and sperm join to form diploid zygote.
9. z
Overview of
Meiosis
Two divisions:
Meiosis I
•Homologous pairs line up during
synapsis resulting in tetrad.
•Homologous chromosomes of each
pair then separate.
Meiosis II
•No duplication of chromosomes (no
interphase)
•Chromosomes are dyads—
composed of two sister chromatids.
•Sister chromatids are separated
•Two daughter nuclei separate.
Before meiosis I, each
chromosome has duplicated
during S phase of Interphase.
Results in four daughter cells
11. z
Synapsis
in Meiosis
During prophase I,
homologous chromosomes
pair up and form a tetrad, a
process called synapsis.
Each tetrad consists of
two chromosomes,
with each
chromosome
containing two
chromatids, for a total
of four chromatids.
12. z
Crossing-Over in Meiosis
When a tetrad forms during synapsis, chromatids from homologous
chromosomes (nonsister chromatids) may exchange genetic material.
Increases variability of the gametes and, therefore, the offspring
14. z
The Importance of Meiosis
Chromosome number stays constant in each new
generation by producing haploid gametes
Generates genetic variations
Crossing-over
Every possible combination of chromosomes can occur
in daughter cell
Fertilization produces new combinations.
223 2
or 70,368,744,000,000 chromosomally different
zygotes are possible, even assuming no crossing-over.
15. z
9.2 The Phases
of Meiosis
In this section, the following objectives
will be covered:
List and describe the phases of
meiosis.
16. z
The Phases of Meiosis
Meiosis involves two divisions: meiosis I and
meiosis II.
Each division is broken down into four phases:
Prophase (I and II)
Metaphase (I and II)
Anaphase (I and II)
Telophase (I and II)
17. Figure 9.5 Meiosis, 1
Prophase I
Tetrads form, and
crossing-over occurs as
chromosomes condense;
the nuclear envelope fragments.
Meiosis I: Homologous chromosomes separate
Telophase I
Daughter nuclei are
haploid, having received
one duplicated
chromosome from each homologous pair.
Anaphase I
Homologues separate, and dyads move
to poles.
Metaphase I
Tetrads align at the spindle
equator.Either homologue can
face either pole.
18. Figure 9.5 Meiosis, 2
Telophase II
Four haploid daughter
cells are genetically
different from each other
and from the parent cell.
Metaphase II
The dyads align at the
spindleequator.
Meiosis II: Sister chromatids separate
Anaphase II
Sister chromatids separate,
becoming daughter chromosomes
that move to the poles.
Prophase II
Chromosomes condense,
and the nuclear envelope fragments.
19. z
9.3 Meiosis
Compared with
Mitosis
In this section, the following objectives
will be covered:
Compare and contrast meiosis 1
and 2 with mitosis.
20. z
Meiosis Compared with Mitosis
Meiosis—two consecutive nuclear divisions;
mitosis—only one nuclear division
Meiosis produces four daughter nuclei, and there are
four daughter cells following cytokinesis. Mitosis
followed by cytokinesis results in two daughter cells.
Following meiosis, the four daughter cells are haploid
and have half the chromosome number as the parent
cell. Following mitosis, the daughter cells have the
same chromosome number as the parent cell.
Following meiosis, the daughter cells are genetically
dissimilar to each other and to the parent cell.
Following mitosis, the daughter cells are genetically
identical to each other and to the parent cell.
22. z
Meiosis I Compared to Mitosis
During prophase I of meiosis, synapsis occurs.
During metaphase I of meiosis, tetrads align at the
spindle equator, with homologous chromosomes facing
opposite spindle poles and the paired chromosomes have
a total of four chromatids each. During metaphase in
mitosis, dyads align separately at the spindle equator.
Sister chromatids do not separate during anaphase I.
During anaphase of mitosis, sister chromatids separate,
becoming daughter chromosomes that move to opposite
poles.
23. z
Meiosis II Compared to Mitosis
The events of meiosis II are just like those of
mitosis except that in meiosis II, the cells
have the haploid number of chromosomes.
24. z
Mitosis and Meiosis Occur
at Different Times
Meiosis occurs only at certain times of the life cycle of
sexually reproducing organisms and only in specialized
tissues.
Mitosis is much more common.
Occurs in all tissues during embryonic growth
Also occurs during growth and repair
25. z
9.4 Changes in
Chromosome
Number
In this section, the following objectives
will be covered:
Define nondisjunction and explain
how it brings about an abnormal
chromosome number.
26. z
Changes in Chromosome
Number
Nondisjunction
Meiosis I—both members of a pair go into the same
daughter cell
Meiosis II—sister chromatids fail to separate
Trisomy—three copies of a chromosome
Down syndrome (trisomy 21)
Monosomy—single copy of a chromosome
29. z
Down Syndrome
Trisomy 21
Recognizable characteristics
Short stature, eyelid fold, stubby fingers,
mental disabilities
The chance of a woman having a Down
syndrome child increases rapidly with age,
starting at about 40.
31. z
Abnormal Sex Chromosome Number
Too few or too many X or Y chromosomes
Newborns with abnormal sex chromosome numbers are more likely
to survive than those with abnormal autosome numbers.
Extra X chromosomes become Barr bodies—inactivated
Y determines maleness
SRY (sex-determining region Y) gene on Y chromosome
Turner syndrome (45, XO)
Absence of second sex chromosome
Female
Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY)
Extra X inactivated as Barr body
Male
32. z
Chapter 9 Objective Summary
You should now be able to:
Explain the purpose of meiosis.
Describe the human life cycle differentiating between diploid and
haploid stages.
Explain the significance of synapsis and crossing over.
List and describe the phases of meiosis.
Compare and contrast meiosis 1 and 2 with mitosis.
Define nondisjunction and explain how it brings about an
abnormal chromosome number.