The document discusses various topics in biotechnology and genomics including recombinant DNA technology, polymerase chain reaction, DNA analysis, genome editing, stem cells, cloning, genetically modified organisms, genomics, and proteomics. It provides descriptions and explanations of these concepts and processes, how they are used, and their significance to scientific research and applications.

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CHAPTER 12
BIOTECHNOLOGY
AND GENOMICS
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2. 13-2 12-2
12.1 BIOTECHNOLOGY
• In this section, the following objective will be covered:
• Describe the steps involved in making a
recombinant DNA molecule.
• Explain the purpose/use of biotechnology
processes: DNA sequencing, the Polymerase Chain
Reaction (PCR), DNA fingerprinting, genome editing,
cloning, genetic engineering .

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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
BIOTECHNOLO
GY
Genetic engineering—inserting
cloned genes into an organism
Transgenic organism or
genetically modified
organism (GMO
Cloning genes—making
identical copies
Because the genetic
code is nearly universal,
it’s possible to transfer
cloned genes between
virtually any organism.
Biotechnology-the use of natural
biological systems to create a
product or achieve some other
end desired by humans

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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
RECOMBINANT
DNA
TECHNOLOGY
• Recombinant DNA (rDNA)
contains DNA from two or
more different organisms.
• A vector is used to carry the
foreign DNA.
• May be a plasmid from
bacteria
• Restriction enzymes are
molecular scissors.
• Cut DNA at specific sites
• “Sticky ends”
• DNA ligase used to join pieces
of DNA together

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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
RECOMBINANT
DNA
TECHNOLOGY
• Human insulin made by
bacterial cells
• Human gene removed
• Inserted into plasmid
• Plasmid inserted into
bacteria
• Bacteria produce insulin as if
it were one of their own
gene products.

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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
POLYMERAS
E CHAIN
REACTION
(PCR)
Amplifies specific DNA sequences
DNA polymerase—makes DNA
• From Thermus aquaticus—tolerates high
temperatures
Primers—specific DNA segment to be
amplified
• Doesn’t amplify all DNA—only target
Cycles over and over again, doubling
amount of DNA at each cycle

7. 13-7 12-7
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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
THE POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION
1.Sample is first
heated to
denature
DNA.
2.DNA is cooled to
a lower
temperature to
allow annealing
of primers.
3. DNA is
heated to
72°C, the
optimal
temperature
for Taq DNA
polymerase to
extend
primers.

8. 13-8 12-8
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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
DNA ANALYSIS
DNA fingerprinting
• Makes use of repeating noncoding
DNA segments
• People differ in how many repeats
• Can use PCR to increase amount of
DNA sample
• Electrophoresis separates samples
by size.
• Longer DNA strands are larger
and migrate less on the gel.

9. 13-9 12-9
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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
DNA
FINGERPRINTIN
G

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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
GENOM
E
EDITING
Targets specific sequences of DNA for
removal or replacement.
Process can act as molecular scissors to
insert new nucleotides at specific DNA
locations.
CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced
short palindromic repeats)
• Discovered in prokaryotes as a viral defense
mechanism
• Cas9, an endonuclease enzyme, identifies specific
portion to be cut.
• A sequence called PAM must be adjacent to target
DNA for process to be successful.

11. 13-11 12-11
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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
CRISPR
AND
GENOME
EDITING

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12.2 STEM CELLS AND CLONING
• In this section, the following objective will be covered:
• Differentiate between embryonic and adult stem
cells.

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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
STEM
CELLS
AND
CLONIN
G
• Every cell in your body
receives a copy of all genes.
• Every cell in your body has
the potential to become a
complete organism.
• Cloning uses this potential
• Reproductive cloning
• Therapeutic cloning

14. 13-14 12-14
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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
REPRODUCTIVE
CLONING
• Desired end is an individual
exactly like the original
• Plant cloning routine
• Cloning of adult animals
thought impossible
March 1997—Dolly, cloned Dorset
sheep
• Adult nucleus placed in
enucleated cell
• Donor cells starved, causing
them to go into G0.
• G0 nuclei can be signaled to
initiate development.

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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
ANIMAL
CLONIN
G
• Farm animals with desirable
traits commonly cloned
• Some endangered animals
cloned
• In the United States, no federal
funds can be used for
experiments to clone humans.
• Some but not all cloned
animals have exhibited
abnormal aging
• Additional research needed to
address challenges
• Products from cloned animals
just as nutritious as those from
noncloned animals

16. 13-16 12-16
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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
THERAPEUT
IC
CLONING
• Desired end is mature cells for:
• Learning more about cell
specialization
• Use in treating human
illnesses
• Can be carried out in several
ways:
• Embryonic stem cells
• Common but ethical
concerns
• Adult stem cells
• Limited in number of cells
they can become
• May be able to overcome
limitation

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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
FORMS OF
CLONING

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12.3 BIOTECHNOLOGY
PRODUCTS
• In this section, the following objective will be covered:
• Summarize the uses and advantages to genetically
modified organisms.

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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
BIOTECHNOLOG
Y PRODUCTS
• Organisms can be genetically
engineered for use in
biotechnology.
• Transgenic bacteria
• Grown in bioreactors
• Gene product collected
from growth medium

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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
BIOTECHNOLOGY
PRODUCTS

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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
TRANSGENI
C PLANTS
AND
ANIMALS
• Cotton, corn, and potato make their
own insecticide
• Soybeans herbicide resistant
• Larger fishes, cows, and pigs from
inserted growth hormone gene
• “Pharming”—use of transgenic farm
animal to produce pharmaceuticals in
milk
• Transgenic animals may be cloned—
nucleus from adult cell introduced into
enucleated egg cell produces identical
genotype of adult donor

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12.4 GENOMICS AND
PROTEOMICS
• In this section, the following objective will be covered:
• Define and explain the uses for genomics,
proteonomics, and bioinformatics.

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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
GENOMIC
S
•Human and other organisms
•Coding and noncoding segments
Genomics—study of genomes
•13-year effort
•Found many small regions of DNA vary
among individuals
•Some individuals even have extra
copies of genes.
•Differences may have no effect or may
increase or decrease susceptibility to
disease.
Human Genome Project

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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
VARIATIONS IN DNA SEQUENCE
d. Variation
in the gene
copy
number
a.Normal
chromosomal DNA
b.Variation in the order
of the bases within a
gene due to a mutation
c.Variation in the
of the bases
within an
intergenic
sequence due to a
mutation

25. 13-25 12-25
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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
GENOME
COMPARISON
S
• Clues to evolutionary origins
• Genes of humans and chimps 98% alike
• Humans and mice 85% alike
• Humans also share genes with
bacteria.
• Comparing human and chimp
chromosome 22
• Among the genes that differed were
several that may have played a role in
human evolution.
• Speech, hearing, and smell
• Comparing genomes may be a way of
finding genes associated with human
diseases.

26. 13-26 12-26
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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
PROTEOMICS AND
BIOINFORMATICS
• Proteomics—explores structure and function of
cellular proteins and how they interact to
produce traits
• Important in drug development
• Bioinformatics—application of computer
technologies to study genome and proteome
• Using computer to analyze large amount of
data to find significant patterns

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CHAPTER 12 OBJECTIVE
SUMMARY• You should now be able to:
• 1. Describe the steps involved in making a recombinant
DNA molecule.
• 2. Explain the purpose/use of biotechnology processes:
DNA sequencing, the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR),
DNA fingerprinting, genome editing, cloning, genetic
engineering .
• 3. Differentiate between embryonic and adult stem cells.
• 4. Summarize the uses and advantages to genetically
modified organisms.
• 5. Define and explain the uses for genomics,
proteonomics, and bioinformatics.