This chapter discusses procedures for data collection, processing, and analysis including primary and secondary data collection methods, guidelines for questionnaires, data editing, coding, classification, tabulation, and presenting data through diagrams and graphs for analysis and answering research questions.

1. 1
Chapter 8
Procedures of Data
Collection, Data Processing
and Analysis

2. 2
Contents
 Collection of data – primary, secondary
data
 Methods of collecting data
 Essentials of a good questionnaire
 Selection of appropriate method for data
collection
 Data processing - Editing, coding,
classifying and tabulating of data
 Rules for tabulation
 Diagrammatic and graphic presentation
 Data analysis

3. 3
Types of Data
Primary Data
(Data collected for
the first time)
Secondary Data
(Data already
collected & passed
through statistical
process)

4. 4
Data collection begins only after a research
problem has been defined and research
design finalized.
Primary data are collected for the first time,
hence original in character.
Secondary data are those which have
already been collected by someone else and
have already been passed through statistical
process.

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Methods of Collecting Primary DataMethods of Collecting Primary Data
Surveys Observation Experiments
Personal
Interview
Mailed
Questionnaire
method
On-lineTelephone In house self
administered
Schedules sent
through
Enumerators
Indirect
oral
interview
Direct
personal
interview
FGD

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Observation
Participant
observation
Non-participant
observation
Mechanical
observation
Methods of Collecting Primary
Data
 Participant observation: The observer
takes part in the situation he or she
observers. Mostly takes part in community
settings.

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 Non-participant observation: The observer
does not participate in the situation and
collects data by observing behaviour
without interacting with participants.
 Mechanical observation: People or
situations are to be observed in a closed
setting through mechanical devices.

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Interview
Structured
interview
Unstructured
interview
Semi-structured
interview
 Structured interview: Usually used in quantitative research.
Standard set of questions are asked to all respondents.
Interviewer asks the questions exactly as appeared. Choice of
answers to the questions is often pre-determined (close-ended).

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 Unstructured interview: Neither the
questions not the answers are pre-
determined. Questions can be changed or
adopted to meet respondent’s
understanding. Does not offer a restricted,
pre-set range of answers.
 Semi-structured interview: Includes partly
open-ended and closed-ended questions.
Involves both give and receive information.

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Sources of Secondary DataSources of Secondary Data
Internal Source External Source
Databases
Letters, Records
In house
publications
Ministries, Agencies of govt.
Reports of international
Bodies & foreign govt.
www., magazines
Journals, newspapers
Associations
Research Groups &Companies
Universities/Colleges

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 Each item contributes equally to the
measure of that construct, implying all
items are of equal importance.
 Can have several types of response
categories.
Rating Scale

12. 12
Type of
Scale
Points on Continuum
1 2 3 4 5
Agreement Strongly
Agree
Agree Neither
Agree or
Disagree
Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Frequency Always Often About Half
the Time
Seldom Never
Satisfaction Very
Satisfied
Satisfied Neither
Satisfied nor
Dissatisfied
Dissatisfied Very
Dissatisfied
Effectiveness Very
Effective
Effective Neither
Effective nor
Ineffective
Ineffective Very
Ineffective
Quality Very Good Good Average Poor Very Poor
Expectancy Much
Better than
Expected
Better than
Expected
As Expected Worse than
Expected
Much Worse
then
Expected
Extent To a Very
Great
Extent
To a Great
Extent
Somewhat To a Small
Extent
To a Very
Small Extent

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SecondarySecondary
DataData
PrimaryPrimary
DataData
AdvantagesAdvantages
1.Less expensive
2.Easily accessible
3.Immediately
available
1.Application
and usable
2.Accurate and
reliable
3.Up-to-date
DisadvantagesDisadvantages
1.May not be
applicable
2.Potentially
unreliable
3.Frequently
outdated
1.Expensive
2.Not as readily
accessible
3.Not available
immediately

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Questionnaire should be short and simple.
Size of the questionnaire should be kept to
the minimum.
Questions should proceed in logical
sequence.
Personal questions should be left to the end.
Technical terms should be avoided.
Questions may be Dichotomous (yes/no),
multiple choice or open-ended.
Questions difficult in interpretation should be
avoided.
Essentials of a Good
Questionnaire

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Control questions should get place in the
questionnaire to facilitate cross check for
testing the reliability of information.
Questions affecting sentiments should be
avoided.
Adequate space should be provided in
Questionnaire.
Brief directions should be given at
necessary places.
Ensure better quality of paper, color for
drawing attention (necessary for mailed
Questionnaire method).

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Be clear about the various aspects of the
problem to be dealt with.
Keep in mind the nature of information
sought, sample respondents and kind of
analysis intended.
Rough draft of the Questionnaire should be
prepared first by giving due thought to the
appropriate sequence of putting questions.
Should re-examine and revise the rough
draft of Questionnaire.
Guidelines in Preparing
Questionnaire

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Technical defects must be minutely
scrutinized and removed.
Pilot study should be undertaken for pre-
testing the Questionnaire.
Questionnaire should be edited as per the
feedback of pilot survey.
Provide straight forward directions to clearly
understand the questions by the
respondents.

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Considerations:
 Nature, scope and objectives of study
 Level of precision required
 Availability of funds and involvement of
time.
 Level of efforts and expertise.
Selection of Appropriate Method
for Data Collection

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Processing implies editing, coding,
classification and tabulation of collected
data to help further analysis.
Analysis refers to computation of certain
measures along with searching for patterns
of relationship that exist among data-
groups.
Analysis involves organizing data for
answering the research questions.
Data Processing and Analysis

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Data ProcessingData Processing
1. Editing
2.
Coding
3. Classification
4. Tabulation

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EditingEditing
Central Editing
Field Editing
Checking the data for errors ,
omissions & ambiguities
Should be done
after the closing
of interview.
Should be done after
the field interview.
(Be familiar with instructions and understand clearly)

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Refers to the process of assigning numerals
or other symbols to answers.
Helps in putting responses into a limited
number of categories or classes.
Decisions of coding should be taken at the
designing stage of the Questionnaire.
Coding

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ClassificationClassification
Arrangement of data in
groups as per common
characteristics
Geographical
(area-wise)
Chronological
( basis of time)
Qualitative
(Attributes)
Quantitative
( magnitude)

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A table is a systematic arrangement of
statistical data in columns and rows.
Parts of a Table:
Table Number: Each table should be
numbered.
Table number may be given either in the
centre at the top above the title or inside of
the title at the top or in the bottom of the
table on the left-hand side.
Tabulation of Data

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Title of the Table: Should be clear, brief and
self-explanatory.
Title has to answer the questions what,
where and when in that sequence.
Caption: Is the column headings and
explains what the column represents.
Under column heading there may be sub-
heads.
Stub: The designations of rows or row
headings. Placed at the extreme left in the
table.

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Body: Contains numerical information. Data
presented in the body are classifications of
the captions and stubs.
Head note: A brief statement applying to all
parts of the material in the table, placed at
the above extreme right enclosed in
brackets.
Footnotes: Anything in a table to simplify in
understanding the title, captions and stubs.
Source: Reference to the source should be
completed in itself – name, date of
publication, page number etc.

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Stub
Heading
Stub
Entries
Caption
Column Heading
Body
FootnoteFootnote
SourceSource
(Head note)(Head note)
TitleTitle
Parts of a Table
Table No.Table No.

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SimpleComplex General Purpose
(reference)
Special Purpose
(derivative)
One-way Two -way Higher order
Treble Manifold
Types of Table

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Simple table (one-way table): Only one
characteristics is shown.
Table No. 2.1
Distribution of Teachers in Institute of Higher
Learning according to age-group
Age (in years) No. of Employees
Below 25
25 – 35
35 – 45
07 (25.93)
09 (33.33)
11 (40.74
Total 27 (100.0)
Footnote: Figures in the parentheses indicate percentage to total.
Source: Annual Report, Institute of Higher Learning, 2010.

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Two-way table: Shows two characteristics.
Formed when either Stub or the Caption is
divided into two coordinate parts.
Table No. 2.1.3
Distribution of Teachers in Institute of Higher
Learning according to Age-groups and Sex
Age (in years) Teachers Total
Males Females
Below 25
25 – 35
35 – 45
06
07
13
05
09
04
11 (25.0)
16 (36.0)
17 (39.0)
Total 26 (59.0) 18 (41.0) 44 (100.0)

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Higher order table: Three or more
characteristics are represented in the table.
Treble tabulation: Three characteristics are
shown.
Age in
Years
Positions
TotalProfessor Associate
Professor
Assistant
Professor
M F Total M F Total M F Total M F Total
Below 25
25 - 35
03
04
02
05
05
09
07
11
06
07
13
18
01
03
04
05
05
08
11
18
12
17
23 (..)
35 (..)
Total 07 07 14 18 13 31 04 09 13 29 29 58
Distribution of Teachers in IHL according to Age-groups, Sex and
Positions
Table No. 3.2.1

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 Manifold tabulation: Four or more characteristics
are simultaneously shown.
Table No. 4.6.1
Distribution of Teachers in IHL as per Religion, Age, Position
and Sex
Position
TotalProfessor Associate
Professor
Assistant
Professor
M F Total M F Total M F Total M F Total
Total
Total
Religion
Age(InYears)
BuddhismHinduism

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General tables: Reference or Repository
tables provide information for general use or
reference.
Usually contain detailed information and are
not constructed for specific discussion.
Be placed in the appendix of the reports for
easy reference.
Special tables: Known as Summary tables,
provide information for particular discussion.
Be placed in the body of the text.
Are derived from general tables.

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General Rules:
Every diagram must be given a suitable title.
A proper proportion between the height and
width of the diagram should be maintained to
avoid ugly look to the diagram.
Scale showing the values should be in even
numbers or in multiples of 5 or 10. Odd
values like 1,3,7 should be avoided.
Diagrammatic and Graphic
Presentation

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Scale should specify the size of the unit and
what it represents- million of tones, units in
thousands, etc.
To clarify certain points about diagram,
footnote be placed at the bottom of the
diagram.
An index explaining different types of lines
or shades, colors should be given for getting
the meaning easily.

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Diagrams should be absolutely neat and
clean.
Too much material should not be loaded in
a single diagram. This is to avoid confusion.
Diagrams should be as simple as possible
to understand clearly and easily.

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Questions and Discussion
Students must see the research
reports in which analysis is
carried out by the researchers