This document provides an overview of the classification of life on Earth. It discusses the eight major categories used in scientific classification (Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, etc.). The three Domains - Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya are introduced. Key details are provided about the characteristics and impacts of bacteria, archaea, protists, plants, fungi and animals. Examples like photosynthetic algae and disease-causing bacteria are mentioned.

1. Chapter 16
The Diversity of Life
رض ا ة

2. ا
Lectures by
Gregory Ahearn
University of North Florida
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3. 16.1 How are Organisms Named and Classified?
Organisms are placed into categories on the
basis of their evolutionary relationships.
These categories form a nested hierarchy in
which each level includes all the ones
before it.
There are eight major categories:
• Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order,
family, genus, species.
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4. The scientific classification of human
Domain Eukarya
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammilla
Order Primates
Family Hominidae
Genus Homo
Species sapiens
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5. 16.1 How are Organisms Named and Classified?
The scientific name of an organism is a two-part
name formed from the genus and species
categories.
Each genus includes a group of closely related
species, and within each species are
individuals that can interbreed.
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6. 16.1 How are Organisms Named and Classified?
Each two-part scientific name is unique;
referring to an organism by its scientific name
rules:
• Scientific names are underlined or italicized.
• The first letter of the genus name is always
capitalized, and the first letter of the species
name is always lowercase.
• Sialia sialis
• The species name is never used alone but is always paired
with its genus name.
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7. 16.1 How are Organisms Named and Classified?
Biologists identify features that reveal evolutionary relationships.
.
• They look at many kinds of characteristics.
play a key role in classification.
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are also useful in classification.

8. 16.2 What Are The Domains Of Life?
The three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eurkarya.
BACTERIA
15 kingdoms ARCHAEA
3 kingdoms
EUKARYA
4 kingdoms
animals fungi
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plants
protists

9. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea
Earth’s first organisms were prokaryotes
• In terms of abundance, prokaryotes are
Earth’s predominant form of life.
• Prokaryotes include Bacteria and Archaea
• They are single-celled microbes that
lacked organelles such as a nucleus,
chloroplasts, and mitochondria.
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10. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea
Bacteria and Archaea are fundamentally different.
• Bacterial cells contain molecules of the
polymer peptidoglycan, which strengthens
the cell wall.
• They also differ in the structure and
composition of the plasma membrane,
ribosomes, and RNA polymerases, as well
as in the processes of transcription and
translation.
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11. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea
• The biochemical differences between archaea
and bacteria make distinguishing the two domains
easy.
• Prokaryotes have been classified on the basis of
shape, means of locomotion, pigments, nutrient
requirements, the appearance of colonies, and
staining properties.
• More recently, the comparisons of DNA and RNA
nucleotide sequences have been used in
prokaryotic classification.
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12. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea
Prokaryotes exhibit diverse metabolisms.
• Many prokaryotes are anaerobes; their
metabolisms do not require oxygen.
• Others are opportunistic, using anaerobic
respiration when oxygen is absent and
switching to aerobic respiration when
oxygen is available.
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13. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea
• Prokaryotes feed on many things,
including sugars, proteins, and fats, but
also petroleum, methane, benzene, and
toluene; some can use hydrogen, sulfur,
ammonia, iron, and nitrate.
• Some prokaryotes possess chlorophyll
and are photosynthetic.
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14. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea
Most prokaryotes reproduce asexually by
binary fission.
• They produce identical copies of the
original cell.
• They reproduce rapidly and can evolve
quickly to adapt to changing conditions.
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15. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea
Protective endospores allow some bacteria to
withstand adverse conditions.
• The endospore forms within the
bacterium, and contains genetic
material and a few enzymes encased in
a thick protective coat.
• Metabolic activity ceases until the spore
encounters favorable conditions, which
may take an extremely long period of
time.
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16. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea
Prokaryotes affect humans and other organisms.
• Prokaryotes play important roles in animal
nutrition.
• Many animals that eat plants cannot digest the
cellulose in plants themselves and rely on
symbiotic bacteria in their digestive tracts, which
are able to digest cellulose, to liberate nutrients
from this food source.
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17. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea
• Many foods that humans eat are
produced by the actions of bacteria,
including cheese, yogurt, and sauerkraut.
• Some bacteria in human intestines feed
on undigested food and synthesize
nutrients, such as vitamin K and vitamin
B12, which the human body absorbs.
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18. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea
Prokaryotes are nature’s recyclers.
• Prokaryotes consume the organic molecules in
the dead bodies of plants and animals,
decomposing their wastes and recycling them
to the environment.
• Prokaryotes can clean up pollution.
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19. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea
• Nearly anything that human beings can
synthesize can be broken down by some
prokaryote, including detergents, toxic
pesticides, and harmful industrial chemicals.
• Even oil petroleum can be broken down by
prokaryotes.
• The breakdown of pollutants by bacteria is
called bioremediation.
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20. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea
Pathogenic bacteria (disease-causing) synthesize toxic
substances that cause diseases in humans.
Some anaerobic bacteria produce dangerous poisons toxins that
attack the human systems.
Example Clostridium tetani causes tetanus
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21. The bacterium that causes aanntthhrraaxx can be used as
bbbbbbbbiiiiiiiioooooooollllllllooooooooggggggggiiiiiiiiccccccccaaaaaaaallllllll wwwwwwwweeeeeeeeaaaaaaaappppppppoooooooonnnnnnnnssssssss
Weaponizing anthrax involves manufacturing
eennddoossppoorreess that disperse easily in air, where they
are inhaled and germinate in lungs
Cleaning up after an anthrax
attack in October 2001
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22. Domain Eukarya
Domain Eukarya is divided into four kingdoms:
1. Protists (everything that doesn’t fit into the other three
kingdoms)
22.. -- PPllaannttss
3. - Fungi
4. - Animals

23. 16.4 Protists
The protists are eukaryotes that are not a plant, an
animal, or a fungus.
• Most protists are small and single-celled.
• They are incredibly diverse in their modes of
reproduction and in their structural and physiological
innovations.
• Some of the larger protists are colonies of
single-celled individuals, while others are
multicellular organisms.
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24. 16.4 Protists
Protists have both positive and negative
effects upon humans and other organisms.
The primary positive impact comes from
the ecological roles of photosynthetic
marine protists, e.g Brown algae, Green
algae
The negative side include many human
diseases caused by parasitic protists.
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25. 16.4 Protists
• Brown algae
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Fig. 16-9

26. 16.4 Protists
4-Green algae
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. Green algae Fig. 16-16

27. 16.5 Plants
Properties that distinguish plants from other organisms:
Plants have chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
Plant reproduction features alternation of generations.
Plants have dependent embryos.
Plants have roots or root-like structures that anchor it
and absorb water and nutrient from the soil.
Plants have a waxy cuticle that covers the surface of
leaves and stems, limiting water loss.
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28. The classification of Land plants
Seedless plants Seed plants
Nonvascular plants
(bryophytes)
Vascular plants
Mosses
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(club mosses)
Gymnosperms
Angiosperms

29. 16.6 Fungi
Fungi feed off dead material by secreting digestive fluids
that break down their food outside of their bodies.
• The body of a fungus is called a mycelium and is one-cell
thick.
• The mycelium is made up of extensive numbers of
filaments called hyphae, which grow across a food
source.
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((aa)) Mycelium ((bb)) Hyphae

30. 16.6 Fungi
Fungi affect humans and other organisms.
Fungi play a major role in the destruction of dead plant
tissue by being able to digest both lignin and cellulose, the
molecules that make up wood.
Fungi are saprophytes (feeding on dead organisms) and
consume the dead of all kingdoms.
nutrients and minerals to the environment.
Antibiotics (such as penicillin, oleandomycin, and
cephalosporin) are made from fungi to combat bacterial
diseases.
Fungi attack both plants and animals causing many
diseases.
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31. 16.7 Animals
Characteristics ooff aanniimmaallss
AAnniimmaallss aarree mmuullttiicceelllluullaarr.
AAnniimmaallss ggeett tthheeiirr eenneerrggyy bbyy ccoonnssuummiinngg ootthheerr oorrggaanniissmmss..
AAnniimmaallss rreepprroodduuccee sseexxuuaallllyy..
AAnniimmaall cceellllss llaacckk aa cceellll wwaallll..
AAnniimmaallss aarree mmoobbiillee..
AAnniimmaallss rreeaacctt rraappiiddllyy ttoo eexxtteerrnnaall ssttiimmuullii..
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32. 1- Invertebrates (without backbones).
Sponges
Sponges have a simple body plan, lack
tissues or organs, and are colonies of
single-celled organisms
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33. 16.7 Animals
Arthropods are the dominant animals on Earth.
• Arthropoda includes:
1- Insects
2- Arachnids,
3- Crustaceans..
• Insects are the only flying invertebrates.
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34. 16.7 Animals
Chordates include both invertebrates and vertebrates.
They have the following features:
The notochord:
The nerve cord:
Pharyngeal gill slits:
A post-anal tail:
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35. 16.7 Animals
Vertebrates have a backbone.
In vertebrates, the embryonic notochord is
normally replaced during development by a
backbone, or vertebral column.
Vertebrates are represented by fish,
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals
.
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36. Mammals
16.7 Animals
One branch of reptiles gave rise to a group that evolved
hair and diverged to form the mammals.
Mammals are named for the milk-producing mammary
glands used by female members of the group to suckle
their young.
In most mammals, fur protects and insulates the warm
body.
The mammals are divided into three groups:
monotremes, marsupials, and placentals.
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37. 16.7 Animals
Monotremes lay eggs.
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38. Marsupials
16.7 Animals
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39. 16.7 Animals
Placental mammals
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Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc.
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