Thiols and sulfides are sulfur analogs of alcohols and ethers, respectively. Thiols contain an R-S-H functional group and are named with the suffix -thiol. Sulfides contain an R-S-R' group and are named similarly to ethers with sulfide replacing ether. Practice problems involve naming thiols and sulfides. Halogenation of alkanes involves radical initiation by heat or light followed by radical propagation and termination reactions. The reactivity depends on the halogen used as well as the stability of the radical intermediates formed.
Thiols are sulfur analogs of alcohols and are also called mercaptans. Sulfides are sulfur analogs of ethers and are also known as thioethers. Thiols and sulfides have lower boiling points and are less soluble in water than other alcohols and ethers. They also show little association through hydrogen bonding. Common thiols include those that give onions and garlic their smell, while common sulfides include metal sulfides like silver sulfide, mercury sulfide, and lead sulfide. Thiols and sulfides are used in industries like oil, gas, pulp and paper.
The document summarizes key information about carboxylic acids from their general formula of RCOOH to their characteristic properties and reactions. It discusses (1) the nomenclature and structures of carboxylic acids, (2) their higher boiling points and water solubility compared to similar molecules due to hydrogen bonding, (3) their acidity stemming from ionization of the carboxyl group, and (4) several important reactions including preparation by oxidation, esterification, and formation of derivatives like acid chlorides, anhydrides, salts, and amides.
Here are the answers:
a)
i) K (2-methyl-1-propanol):
CH3
|
CH3-C-CH2-CH2-OH
|
CH3
L (2-methyl-2-propanol):
CH3
|
CH3-C-CH(OH)-CH3
ii) K can be prepared by reacting propanone with methylmagnesium bromide, a Grignard reagent:
CH3COCH3 + CH3MgBr → CH3C(OCH3)(CH3) → CH3C(OH)(CH3)CH3 + MgBr
iii) M
Esters have the general formula RCOOR'. They are formed by the reaction of carboxylic acids with alcohols, which is called esterification. Esters can also be prepared from acyl chlorides or acid anhydrides. Esters undergo various reactions including hydrolysis, aminolysis, reactions with Grignard reagents, and transesterification. Hydrolysis converts esters back into carboxylic acids and alcohols. Transesterification involves exchanging one alkoxy group in an ester for another.
This document summarizes key information about alkenes (olefins):
1) Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds and are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons. Common examples include ethylene and propene.
2) Alkenes undergo characteristic reactions such as addition of halogens, hydrogenation to form alkanes, hydration and polymerization. Many of these reactions follow Markovnikov's rule.
3) Alkenes are industrially important as monomers for polymers like polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC and polystyrene. Ethylene and propylene are the largest volume organic chemicals produced.
This document provides information about aldehydes and ketones, including:
1) Aldehydes contain a carbonyl group bonded to at least one hydrogen, while ketones have no hydrogens bonded to the carbonyl carbon.
2) Carbonyl compounds are more polar than alkanes due to the polar carbonyl group. Aldehydes and ketones can hydrogen bond with water.
3) Aldehydes and ketones undergo oxidation reactions to form carboxylic acids and oxidation, reduction, addition, and condensation reactions that are important for their reactivity.
Ethers are named based on the groups bonded to oxygen, with the common system naming the two groups followed by "ether". The IUPAC system names the larger alkyl group as a suffix and the smaller group with oxygen as a prefix like "methoxy". Ethers can be prepared through Williamson's synthesis using alcohols and alkyl halides, by reacting alkyl halides with silver oxide, or by dehydrating two alcohols with sulfuric acid. Ethers are colorless, inflammable compounds that are good solvents and lighter than water. They react with acids like HI and HBr, with HI cleaving the ether bond to form an alcohol and alkyl iodide.
Thiols are sulfur analogs of alcohols and are also called mercaptans. Sulfides are sulfur analogs of ethers and are also known as thioethers. Thiols and sulfides have lower boiling points and are less soluble in water than other alcohols and ethers. They also show little association through hydrogen bonding. Common thiols include those that give onions and garlic their smell, while common sulfides include metal sulfides like silver sulfide, mercury sulfide, and lead sulfide. Thiols and sulfides are used in industries like oil, gas, pulp and paper.
The document summarizes key information about carboxylic acids from their general formula of RCOOH to their characteristic properties and reactions. It discusses (1) the nomenclature and structures of carboxylic acids, (2) their higher boiling points and water solubility compared to similar molecules due to hydrogen bonding, (3) their acidity stemming from ionization of the carboxyl group, and (4) several important reactions including preparation by oxidation, esterification, and formation of derivatives like acid chlorides, anhydrides, salts, and amides.
Here are the answers:
a)
i) K (2-methyl-1-propanol):
CH3
|
CH3-C-CH2-CH2-OH
|
CH3
L (2-methyl-2-propanol):
CH3
|
CH3-C-CH(OH)-CH3
ii) K can be prepared by reacting propanone with methylmagnesium bromide, a Grignard reagent:
CH3COCH3 + CH3MgBr → CH3C(OCH3)(CH3) → CH3C(OH)(CH3)CH3 + MgBr
iii) M
Esters have the general formula RCOOR'. They are formed by the reaction of carboxylic acids with alcohols, which is called esterification. Esters can also be prepared from acyl chlorides or acid anhydrides. Esters undergo various reactions including hydrolysis, aminolysis, reactions with Grignard reagents, and transesterification. Hydrolysis converts esters back into carboxylic acids and alcohols. Transesterification involves exchanging one alkoxy group in an ester for another.
This document summarizes key information about alkenes (olefins):
1) Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds and are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons. Common examples include ethylene and propene.
2) Alkenes undergo characteristic reactions such as addition of halogens, hydrogenation to form alkanes, hydration and polymerization. Many of these reactions follow Markovnikov's rule.
3) Alkenes are industrially important as monomers for polymers like polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC and polystyrene. Ethylene and propylene are the largest volume organic chemicals produced.
This document provides information about aldehydes and ketones, including:
1) Aldehydes contain a carbonyl group bonded to at least one hydrogen, while ketones have no hydrogens bonded to the carbonyl carbon.
2) Carbonyl compounds are more polar than alkanes due to the polar carbonyl group. Aldehydes and ketones can hydrogen bond with water.
3) Aldehydes and ketones undergo oxidation reactions to form carboxylic acids and oxidation, reduction, addition, and condensation reactions that are important for their reactivity.
Ethers are named based on the groups bonded to oxygen, with the common system naming the two groups followed by "ether". The IUPAC system names the larger alkyl group as a suffix and the smaller group with oxygen as a prefix like "methoxy". Ethers can be prepared through Williamson's synthesis using alcohols and alkyl halides, by reacting alkyl halides with silver oxide, or by dehydrating two alcohols with sulfuric acid. Ethers are colorless, inflammable compounds that are good solvents and lighter than water. They react with acids like HI and HBr, with HI cleaving the ether bond to form an alcohol and alkyl iodide.
This document provides an overview of alkenes and alkynes reactions. It discusses addition reactions of alkenes including hydrohalogenation, hydration, halogenation, hydrogenation, oxidation, and polymerization. It also covers conjugated dienes, the Diels-Alder reaction, and drawing resonance forms. For alkynes, the document discusses reduction, addition reactions, hydration, oxidative cleavage, acidity, and acetylide anion formation and reactions.
Carboxylic acids belong to a homologous series of organic compounds containing the carboxyl functional group (-COOH). They are weak acids that can react with bases to form salts, with reactive metals to form salts and hydrogen gas, and with carbonates to form salts, carbon dioxide and water. Ethanoic acid is an important carboxylic acid used to make vinegar. Esters are formed from a reaction between carboxylic acids and alcohols, and have a general formula of RCOOR'. Esters have sweet smells and flavors and are used in perfumes, foods, and solvents.
1. Amines are organic compounds derived from ammonia by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms with alkyl groups. This document discusses the nomenclature, preparation, and reactions of amines.
2. Amines are named based on whether they contain one, two, or three alkyl groups bonded to the nitrogen atom (primary, secondary, tertiary). Aromatic amines are named after the parent aromatic compound with the suffix -amine.
3. Amines can be prepared through reduction of nitro compounds, halides, amides, nitriles, or amides via Hoffman degradation. Common reducing agents include lithium aluminum hydride and catalytic hydrogenation.
Alkenes and their preparation-HYDROCARBONS PART 2ritik
Alkenes can be prepared through various methods including reduction of alkynes, dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides, dehydration of alcohols, and heating vicinal dihalogen derivatives with zinc dust. Addition reactions of alkenes follow Markovnikov's rule or anti-Markovnikov's rule in the presence of peroxides. Alkenes undergo addition reactions with halogens, hydrogen halides, water, sulfuric acid and undergo oxidation, ozonolysis, and polymerization.
This chapter discusses carbonyl compounds, including aldehydes and ketones. It covers nomenclature, reactivity, and reactions of carbonyl compounds. Specifically, it describes how aldehydes are more reactive than ketones due to increased partial positive charge and steric accessibility. It also summarizes key reactions such as addition, reduction, substitution involving nucleophiles, protecting groups, and stereochemistry of additions.
Carboxylic acids and their derivatives are introduced. Carboxylic acids contain a carboxyl functional group (COOH) and are planar in structure. They are weak acids that form hydrogen bonds between molecules, giving them higher boiling points than similar mass compounds. Carboxylic acids and their derivatives react through the carbonyl carbon, undergoing reactions such as esterification, reactions with alcohols to form esters, and reactions with amines to form amides. Acyl chlorides are derived from carboxylic acids by replacing the hydroxyl group with chlorine and are much more reactive than the parent acid.
Chapter 3 Alkenes: Structures, Nomenclature, and an Introduction to Reacti...Vutey Venn
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts related to alkenes including their structures, nomenclature, isomerism, reactivity, and reaction mechanisms. Key points covered include the molecular formula and naming conventions of alkenes, cis-trans isomerism, nucleophilic and electrophilic addition reactions, and the thermodynamic and kinetic parameters that govern reaction rates such as activation energy, rate constants, and reaction order.
Functional groups are moieties within molecules that determine chemical reactivity. Common functional groups include hydrocarbons, halogens, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus and boron groups. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2. Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds with the formula CnH2n, while alkynes have carbon-carbon triple bonds with the formula CnH2n-2. Haloalkanes contain carbon-halogen bonds and undergo substitution or elimination reactions. Oxygen-containing groups like alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, carboxylic acids, esters and ethers have differing reactivities
The document contains information about 5 students' matric numbers and a passage discussing alkyl halides. It defines alkyl halides and describes their classification, nomenclature, physical properties, synthesis from alcohols and alkenes, and reactions including nucleophilic substitution and elimination. Examples are provided to illustrate key concepts and reaction mechanisms.
Alkenes are hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They have lower melting and boiling points than alkanes due to weaker intermolecular forces. The number of carbons determines an alkene's name and formula. Alkenes undergo addition reactions, combustion reactions, polymerization reactions, and can be used to test for double bonds. They differ from alkanes in bonding, reactivity and ability to cause soot during combustion. Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas, resulting in different physical but same chemical properties.
This document provides an overview of alkenes and alkynes. It defines alkenes as hydrocarbons containing one or more carbon-carbon double bonds, with ethylene as the simplest example. Alkynes are defined as hydrocarbons with one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds, with acetylene as the simplest example. The document then discusses structural features, naming conventions, common reactions such as addition, and important industrial polymers derived from alkenes such as polyethylene.
The document defines alkenes as hydrocarbons containing one or more carbon-carbon double bonds. Alkenes have trigonal planar molecular geometry at the double bond with 120° bond angles. Ethene and propene are examples of alkenes with double bonds between the first two carbons. Alkenes exist as colorless gases with fewer than 5 carbons, liquids with 5 or more carbons, and solids with 15 or more carbons depending on their molecular structure and size.
The reaction of a tertiary alkyl halide will proceed by an SN1 or E1 mechanism to give a mixture of products. In the absence of a strong nucleophile or base, the rate-determining step is formation of the tertiary carbocation intermediate. Rearrangements and elimination may then occur to form substituted alkene products.
This document summarizes reactions of alcohols including oxidation, substitution, reduction, dehydration, and other reactions. It discusses oxidation of primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols using various reagents like PCC and chromium reagents. It also covers substitution reactions using halides, tosylates, and thionyl chloride. Dehydration to alkenes and ether formation are discussed. Unique reactions of diols like pinacol rearrangement and periodate cleavage are presented. Esterification and phosphate ester synthesis are also summarized.
The document discusses the nomenclature, properties, and synthesis of aldehydes and ketones. It outlines three common syntheses for benzaldehyde: 1) oxidation of benzyl alcohol, 2) oxidation of toluene, 3) reduction of benzoyl chloride. It also outlines three syntheses for benzophenone: 1) oxidation of benzhydrol, 2) Friedel-Crafts acylation of benzene and benzoyl chloride, 3) reaction of benzoyl chloride with diphenylcuprate. Different syntheses are outlined for six example compounds.
The document discusses addition reactions, which involve all atoms from reactants being added to unsaturated compounds to form products. There are three main types: electrophilic addition, nucleophilic addition, and free radical addition. Electrophilic addition involves an electrophile attacking the π bond. Nucleophilic addition involves a nucleophile attacking carbocations. Free radical addition occurs through radical intermediates formed from reactants. Addition reactions can result in stereospecific or non-stereospecific products depending on the mechanism and reactants involved.
Nomenclature and introduction of major functional groupssuresh gdvm
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts for an A-Level chemistry book. It introduces the major families of organic compounds, including hydrocarbons such as alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. It discusses the classification, nomenclature and isomerism of these compounds, with examples of naming various straight-chain, branched, cyclic and unsaturated hydrocarbons. It also covers the different types of isomerism including structural, stereoisomerism and geometrical isomerism.
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups. A compound containing a carbonyl group is often referred to as a carbonyl compound.
This document provides an overview of aromatic electrophilic substitution reactions (AES). It defines important terms like arenium ions, electrophiles, nucleophiles and discusses the effects of substituents on reactivity. The mechanisms of common AES reactions like nitration, sulfonation, Friedel-Crafts alkylation and acylation are covered. The document also discusses topics like the mesomeric and inductive effects of substituents, the synthesis of tribromobenzene, and the relative reactivities of benzene and substituted benzenes in bromination. Examples of AES on phenols, xylenes, cresols and other aromatic compounds are provided.
The document discusses several topics related to chemistry:
1) The voltage needed to create an electron is about one million volts, the same voltage as lightning. This high voltage accelerates electrons from the sky to the ground.
2) Alcohols are derivatives of hydrocarbons where an –OH group replaces a hydrogen. They can act as both acids and bases.
3) Phenols have a hydroxyl group bonded directly to a benzene ring. They are named based on the carbon the hydroxyl group is bonded to, such as phenol itself or cresols which are methyl phenols.
Tang 07 carboxylic acids, amines, & thiols 2015mrtangextrahelp
This document discusses carboxylic acids, amines, and thiols. It provides information on their IUPAC naming systems, properties, and examples of naming structures for each functional group. For carboxylic acids, it describes how the "-oic acid" suffix is used in IUPAC naming and how they have higher boiling points than hydrocarbons. For amines, it explains how the "amine" suffix is used and that tertiary amines have lower melting/boiling points than primary or secondary amines. Thiols contain a sulfhydryl group and have strong odors, with the "thiol" suffix added in IUPAC naming.
Ethers can be synthesized by dehydrating two alcohols, which involves removing a water molecule. Another method is the Williamson synthesis, where an alkyl halide reacts with an alkoxide ion in the presence of a base to form an ether. It is best to use a primary alkyl halide for the Williamson synthesis due to steric hindrance preventing substitution with secondary and tertiary alkyl halides.
This document provides an overview of alkenes and alkynes reactions. It discusses addition reactions of alkenes including hydrohalogenation, hydration, halogenation, hydrogenation, oxidation, and polymerization. It also covers conjugated dienes, the Diels-Alder reaction, and drawing resonance forms. For alkynes, the document discusses reduction, addition reactions, hydration, oxidative cleavage, acidity, and acetylide anion formation and reactions.
Carboxylic acids belong to a homologous series of organic compounds containing the carboxyl functional group (-COOH). They are weak acids that can react with bases to form salts, with reactive metals to form salts and hydrogen gas, and with carbonates to form salts, carbon dioxide and water. Ethanoic acid is an important carboxylic acid used to make vinegar. Esters are formed from a reaction between carboxylic acids and alcohols, and have a general formula of RCOOR'. Esters have sweet smells and flavors and are used in perfumes, foods, and solvents.
1. Amines are organic compounds derived from ammonia by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms with alkyl groups. This document discusses the nomenclature, preparation, and reactions of amines.
2. Amines are named based on whether they contain one, two, or three alkyl groups bonded to the nitrogen atom (primary, secondary, tertiary). Aromatic amines are named after the parent aromatic compound with the suffix -amine.
3. Amines can be prepared through reduction of nitro compounds, halides, amides, nitriles, or amides via Hoffman degradation. Common reducing agents include lithium aluminum hydride and catalytic hydrogenation.
Alkenes and their preparation-HYDROCARBONS PART 2ritik
Alkenes can be prepared through various methods including reduction of alkynes, dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides, dehydration of alcohols, and heating vicinal dihalogen derivatives with zinc dust. Addition reactions of alkenes follow Markovnikov's rule or anti-Markovnikov's rule in the presence of peroxides. Alkenes undergo addition reactions with halogens, hydrogen halides, water, sulfuric acid and undergo oxidation, ozonolysis, and polymerization.
This chapter discusses carbonyl compounds, including aldehydes and ketones. It covers nomenclature, reactivity, and reactions of carbonyl compounds. Specifically, it describes how aldehydes are more reactive than ketones due to increased partial positive charge and steric accessibility. It also summarizes key reactions such as addition, reduction, substitution involving nucleophiles, protecting groups, and stereochemistry of additions.
Carboxylic acids and their derivatives are introduced. Carboxylic acids contain a carboxyl functional group (COOH) and are planar in structure. They are weak acids that form hydrogen bonds between molecules, giving them higher boiling points than similar mass compounds. Carboxylic acids and their derivatives react through the carbonyl carbon, undergoing reactions such as esterification, reactions with alcohols to form esters, and reactions with amines to form amides. Acyl chlorides are derived from carboxylic acids by replacing the hydroxyl group with chlorine and are much more reactive than the parent acid.
Chapter 3 Alkenes: Structures, Nomenclature, and an Introduction to Reacti...Vutey Venn
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts related to alkenes including their structures, nomenclature, isomerism, reactivity, and reaction mechanisms. Key points covered include the molecular formula and naming conventions of alkenes, cis-trans isomerism, nucleophilic and electrophilic addition reactions, and the thermodynamic and kinetic parameters that govern reaction rates such as activation energy, rate constants, and reaction order.
Functional groups are moieties within molecules that determine chemical reactivity. Common functional groups include hydrocarbons, halogens, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus and boron groups. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2. Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds with the formula CnH2n, while alkynes have carbon-carbon triple bonds with the formula CnH2n-2. Haloalkanes contain carbon-halogen bonds and undergo substitution or elimination reactions. Oxygen-containing groups like alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, carboxylic acids, esters and ethers have differing reactivities
The document contains information about 5 students' matric numbers and a passage discussing alkyl halides. It defines alkyl halides and describes their classification, nomenclature, physical properties, synthesis from alcohols and alkenes, and reactions including nucleophilic substitution and elimination. Examples are provided to illustrate key concepts and reaction mechanisms.
Alkenes are hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They have lower melting and boiling points than alkanes due to weaker intermolecular forces. The number of carbons determines an alkene's name and formula. Alkenes undergo addition reactions, combustion reactions, polymerization reactions, and can be used to test for double bonds. They differ from alkanes in bonding, reactivity and ability to cause soot during combustion. Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas, resulting in different physical but same chemical properties.
This document provides an overview of alkenes and alkynes. It defines alkenes as hydrocarbons containing one or more carbon-carbon double bonds, with ethylene as the simplest example. Alkynes are defined as hydrocarbons with one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds, with acetylene as the simplest example. The document then discusses structural features, naming conventions, common reactions such as addition, and important industrial polymers derived from alkenes such as polyethylene.
The document defines alkenes as hydrocarbons containing one or more carbon-carbon double bonds. Alkenes have trigonal planar molecular geometry at the double bond with 120° bond angles. Ethene and propene are examples of alkenes with double bonds between the first two carbons. Alkenes exist as colorless gases with fewer than 5 carbons, liquids with 5 or more carbons, and solids with 15 or more carbons depending on their molecular structure and size.
The reaction of a tertiary alkyl halide will proceed by an SN1 or E1 mechanism to give a mixture of products. In the absence of a strong nucleophile or base, the rate-determining step is formation of the tertiary carbocation intermediate. Rearrangements and elimination may then occur to form substituted alkene products.
This document summarizes reactions of alcohols including oxidation, substitution, reduction, dehydration, and other reactions. It discusses oxidation of primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols using various reagents like PCC and chromium reagents. It also covers substitution reactions using halides, tosylates, and thionyl chloride. Dehydration to alkenes and ether formation are discussed. Unique reactions of diols like pinacol rearrangement and periodate cleavage are presented. Esterification and phosphate ester synthesis are also summarized.
The document discusses the nomenclature, properties, and synthesis of aldehydes and ketones. It outlines three common syntheses for benzaldehyde: 1) oxidation of benzyl alcohol, 2) oxidation of toluene, 3) reduction of benzoyl chloride. It also outlines three syntheses for benzophenone: 1) oxidation of benzhydrol, 2) Friedel-Crafts acylation of benzene and benzoyl chloride, 3) reaction of benzoyl chloride with diphenylcuprate. Different syntheses are outlined for six example compounds.
The document discusses addition reactions, which involve all atoms from reactants being added to unsaturated compounds to form products. There are three main types: electrophilic addition, nucleophilic addition, and free radical addition. Electrophilic addition involves an electrophile attacking the π bond. Nucleophilic addition involves a nucleophile attacking carbocations. Free radical addition occurs through radical intermediates formed from reactants. Addition reactions can result in stereospecific or non-stereospecific products depending on the mechanism and reactants involved.
Nomenclature and introduction of major functional groupssuresh gdvm
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts for an A-Level chemistry book. It introduces the major families of organic compounds, including hydrocarbons such as alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. It discusses the classification, nomenclature and isomerism of these compounds, with examples of naming various straight-chain, branched, cyclic and unsaturated hydrocarbons. It also covers the different types of isomerism including structural, stereoisomerism and geometrical isomerism.
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups. A compound containing a carbonyl group is often referred to as a carbonyl compound.
This document provides an overview of aromatic electrophilic substitution reactions (AES). It defines important terms like arenium ions, electrophiles, nucleophiles and discusses the effects of substituents on reactivity. The mechanisms of common AES reactions like nitration, sulfonation, Friedel-Crafts alkylation and acylation are covered. The document also discusses topics like the mesomeric and inductive effects of substituents, the synthesis of tribromobenzene, and the relative reactivities of benzene and substituted benzenes in bromination. Examples of AES on phenols, xylenes, cresols and other aromatic compounds are provided.
The document discusses several topics related to chemistry:
1) The voltage needed to create an electron is about one million volts, the same voltage as lightning. This high voltage accelerates electrons from the sky to the ground.
2) Alcohols are derivatives of hydrocarbons where an –OH group replaces a hydrogen. They can act as both acids and bases.
3) Phenols have a hydroxyl group bonded directly to a benzene ring. They are named based on the carbon the hydroxyl group is bonded to, such as phenol itself or cresols which are methyl phenols.
Tang 07 carboxylic acids, amines, & thiols 2015mrtangextrahelp
This document discusses carboxylic acids, amines, and thiols. It provides information on their IUPAC naming systems, properties, and examples of naming structures for each functional group. For carboxylic acids, it describes how the "-oic acid" suffix is used in IUPAC naming and how they have higher boiling points than hydrocarbons. For amines, it explains how the "amine" suffix is used and that tertiary amines have lower melting/boiling points than primary or secondary amines. Thiols contain a sulfhydryl group and have strong odors, with the "thiol" suffix added in IUPAC naming.
Ethers can be synthesized by dehydrating two alcohols, which involves removing a water molecule. Another method is the Williamson synthesis, where an alkyl halide reacts with an alkoxide ion in the presence of a base to form an ether. It is best to use a primary alkyl halide for the Williamson synthesis due to steric hindrance preventing substitution with secondary and tertiary alkyl halides.
This presentation introduces Ohm's Law, which states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage applied across the two points. It defines the variables in Ohm's Law as voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R). It explains the relationships between the variables and how to solve for any one variable given values for the other two.
Ohm's Law describes the relationship between resistance, current, and voltage in an electrical circuit. The formula is R (resistance in ohms) = V (voltage in volts) divided by I (current in amperes). Ohm's Law states that the voltage across a conductor is equal to the current through it multiplied by the resistance of the conductor. Understanding Ohm's Law is vital for working with electrical and electronic circuits as it describes how resistance, current, and voltage are interrelated.
This document provides definitions and descriptions of key terms related to rivers and river systems. It defines terms like headwaters, tributaries, meanders, floodplains, rapids, deltas, loads, watersheds, and more. It explains things like how headwaters are the source of the river, tributaries flow into larger streams, meanders follow winding paths on level land, floodplains are areas subject to seasonal flooding, and deltas form where rivers enter larger bodies of water.
Ethers can be prepared through several methods. One method is the Williamson synthesis, which is a nucleophilic substitution reaction between sodium alkoxides and alkyl halides. Another method is the dehydration of alcohols using concentrated sulfuric acid at 140°C or aluminum oxide at 250°C. Ethers can also be prepared by reacting lower halogenated ethers with Grignard reagents. Ethers form complexes with Lewis acids and bases, undergo halogenation and hydrolysis reactions, and can be oxidized to aldehydes.
This chapter discusses the structure, properties, nomenclature and synthesis of alcohols. Alcohols are classified based on whether the carbon bonded to the hydroxyl group is primary, secondary or tertiary. Common methods for synthesizing alcohols include Grignard reactions, reduction of carbonyl groups, and hydration of alkenes. Grignard reagents add across carbonyl groups to form alcohols while reduction uses agents like sodium borohydride or lithium aluminum hydride. Alcohols exhibit hydrogen bonding which affects their physical properties like higher boiling points and solubility.
Ethers are generally stable and unreactive compounds. Strong acids can cleave ethers at high temperatures, producing an alkyl halide and alcohol. The Claisen rearrangement specifically rearranges allyl aryl ethers to an o-allylphenol by heating. Ethers form explosive peroxides when stored in air or light and it is recommended to not distill ethers completely dry to avoid concentrating any peroxides. Ethers also serve as Lewis bases, forming complexes with acids like boron trifluoride, and coordinating to magnesium in Grignard reagents.
Saponins are plant constituents that cause foaming in aqueous solutions. They are glycosides that can be toxic if injected in the bloodstream but are harmless when taken orally. There are two main types of saponins - pentacyclic triterpenoid and steroidal. Saponins are hydrolyzed into aglycones and sugars. Aglycones determine the saponin type. Many plants contain medicinally active saponins such as diosgenin from Dioscorea villosa wild yam. Saponins have expectorant, anti-inflammatory and immune-modulating properties and are used to treat various conditions.
formulation and development of anti-acne cream using garlic cloves project pr...Sneha Tathe
This document summarizes the formulation and development of an anti-acne cream using garlic cloves. It discusses acne, the causes and development of acne lesions. Garlic cloves were extracted using water and deodorized using soybean oil. The extract was analyzed and found to contain carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, enzymes, and fixed oils. Various cream formulations with different concentrations of garlic extract were prepared and evaluated. The cream with 10% garlic extract was selected based on evaluations. Accelerated stability studies showed the cream remained stable over time with no changes in color, odor or consistency. Microbiological testing showed the garlic extract and cream had antimicrobial activity against common acne-causing bacteria.
The document provides training goals and information about hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas for employees who may be exposed. It aims to develop knowledgeable employees and provide consistent industry training. H2S is a toxic, flammable gas that is colorless and smells like rotten eggs. It can be fatal even at low concentrations and proper safety equipment and procedures must be followed when exposure is possible.
Phys 102 formal simple dc circuits lab reportkgreine
In this lab experiment, the student built both series and parallel circuits containing three resistors each to investigate the relationships between resistance, potential difference, and current. For the series circuit, the student found that the current remains the same throughout while the potential difference varies across each resistor. For the parallel circuit, the current varies across each resistor while the potential difference remains the same. The student's measurements matched well with theoretical calculations, validating the circuit concepts.
The document reports on an experiment to verify Ohm's Law by measuring the current and voltage in circuits with known resistors. Two resistors were tested (R1 = 11.2Ω, R2 = 21.1Ω). Measurements were taken using a voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter. The data was plotted and linear fits confirmed Ohm's Law. Slopes from the plots matched the resistor values to within measurement error, verifying Ohm's Law.
The document discusses the basic components and relationships in electrical circuits. It explains that all circuits require a voltage source to provide energy to electrons, a conductor to carry the electrons, and a load or resistance where energy is extracted. It defines key electrical quantities like voltage, current, resistance, and Ohm's Law, which states that current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance. The document also discusses how internal resistance affects the terminal voltage available from a source.
Ethers are a class of organic compounds containing an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups, following the general formula R-O-R'. Ethers have relatively low polarity and reactivity compared to similar alcohols and alkenes. Common reactions of ethers include forming peroxides in the presence of oxygen and dehydration of alcohols to form ethers. Historically, ether was first used as a general anesthetic for surgery in the 1840s and is still applied as a colorless liquid that causes unconsciousness.
Saponin glycosides are found in parts of plants and are used as detergents. Examples include the root of Saponaria officinalis. There are two types of aglycones: steroidal and triterpenoidal. Glycyrrhiza contains glycyrrhizic acid which produces glycyrrhizic acid and two molecules of glucuronic acid upon hydrolysis. It is used as a flavoring agent and for its demulcent, expectorant, and liver-protective properties. Sarsaparilla's active ingredient is sarsaponin which produces sarsapogenin and D-glucose and L-rhamnose upon hydrolysis. It is
This lesson plan outlines a lesson on electric circuits that will be taught on May 18, 2015. The objectives are for students to be able to define electric circuit, recognize the two types of circuits, connect an actual circuit, and understand the importance of each component. The lesson will begin with a review of electricity sources and distribution. Students will then learn about electric circuits, including defining them, discussing the four essential components (source, conducting path, controlling device, and load), and explaining the differences between series and parallel circuits. To apply the concepts, students will assemble electric circuits using provided materials and their work will be evaluated.
This document discusses classical dosage forms, which are conventional dosage forms prepared without advanced techniques. It describes various classical dosage forms including syrups, decoctions, elixirs, ointments, and lotions. Syrups are concentrated sugar solutions that can preserve drug components. Decoctions are extracts made by boiling drugs in water. Elixirs are sweetened alcoholic solutions. Ointments are semisolid preparations for external use. Lotions are fluid preparations for external application without friction. Examples of each type are provided along with preparation methods and uses.
This document discusses several plant-derived saponin glycosides - Dioscorea, Liquorice, Ginseng, Senega, and Sarsaparilla. For each one, it describes the plant source, parts used, morphological features, major chemical constituents including saponins and aglycones, and traditional medicinal uses. The purpose is to provide information on the identification and properties of these saponin-containing medicinal plants.
This document summarizes an experiment to verify Ohm's law and analyze resistive circuits. The experiment has two parts: 1) Develop a voltage-current characteristic curve for a resistor to verify Ohm's law. Measure voltage and current at increasing voltage levels and plot the relationship. 2) Determine voltages and currents in series and parallel resistor circuits using voltage and current divider rules. Measure voltages across individual resistors in series to verify calculations match measurements.
Thiols and sulfides are sulfur analogs of alcohols and ethers, respectively. Thiols (RSH) contain a mercapto (-SH) group and are analogous to alcohols. Sulfides (RSR') are analogous to ethers. Thiols and sulfides are named similarly to their oxygen counterparts, but with "-thiol" or "sulfide" replacing the alcohol or ether suffix. Sulfur replaces the oxygen in the functional group.
Addition reactions occur when two reactants combine to form a new product with no leftover atoms. In an addition reaction, new groups are added to the starting material, breaking a pi bond and forming two sigma bonds. Addition reactions involve the addition of electrophiles, radicals, or nucleophiles across multiple bonds such as carbon-carbon double or triple bonds.
This document discusses various electrophilic addition reactions involving alkenes, including:
1. Markovnikov's rule and the mechanisms of halogenation, halohydrin formation, oxymercuration, and hydroboration reactions.
2. The stereochemistry and selectivity of addition for these reactions. Anti addition and Markovnikov selectivity are common.
3. Other reactions producing diols from alkenes, such as osmium tetroxide catalyzed dihydroxylation, epoxide openings, and permanganate hydroxylation.
I hope You all like it. I hope It is very beneficial for you all. I really thought that you all get enough knowledge from this presentation. This presentation is about materials and their classifications. After you read this presentation you knowledge is not as before.
The document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 6 of an Organic Chemistry textbook about alkyl halides and their reactions. It covers classes of alkyl halides, nomenclature, properties, preparation methods including free radical halogenation and allylic halogenation, and substitution and elimination reaction mechanisms including SN1, SN2, E1 and E2. It also discusses factors that influence the reactivity and selectivity of these reactions such as nucleophile strength, solvent effects, and substrate structure.
Alkynes are hydrocarbons containing a carbon-carbon triple bond. This chapter discusses the structure, bonding, nomenclature, and reactions of alkynes. Alkynes can undergo hydrogenation to form alkanes, addition of hydrogen halides, and elimination reactions to form alkynes. Their reactivity is influenced by the hybridization of the carbons in the triple bond and the acidity of sp-hybridized carbon-hydrogen bonds.
1. Carboxyl derivatives such as acid chlorides, anhydrides, esters, amides, and nitriles undergo nucleophilic acyl substitution or hydrolysis reactions depending on conditions.
2. Acid chlorides undergo substitution readily due to the good leaving ability of the chloride ion. Esters hydrolyze slowly in water but more readily with acid or base via addition-elimination mechanisms.
3. Amides hydrolyze in acidic conditions through a resonance-stabilized cation intermediate or in basic conditions via a dianion intermediate to give carboxylic acids. Nitriles hydrolyze to carboxylic acids or amides.
The document summarizes the history and structure of benzene. Some key points:
1) Benzene was first isolated in the 1800s and its structure was proposed by Kekulé as a hexagonal ring with alternating single and double bonds.
2) Modern studies show benzene has equal carbon-carbon bond lengths, indicating resonance rather than distinct single and double bonds.
3) Benzene's stability is attributed to resonance and delocalization of pi electrons across the ring, known as aromaticity.
4) Electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions like nitration, sulfonation, and halogenation involve attack by an electrophile on the pi system followed by proton loss restoring aromatic
The document summarizes the history and structure of benzene. It discusses Kekulé's proposed cyclic and resonance structures of benzene which are supported by experimental data showing equal C-C bond lengths. Benzene's stability is attributed to resonance and delocalization of π-electrons over the ring. Electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions of benzene such as nitration, sulfonation and halogenation are explained. Friedel-Crafts reactions involving benzene are also summarized.
Hydrocarbons, the fundamental compounds of organic chemistry, are composed of hydrogen and carbon atoms. The diverse world of hydrocarbons is neatly categorized based on their structure and the type of bonds they contain. In Class 11, students delve into the classification of hydrocarbons, exploring alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatic compounds.
In Class 11 Chemistry, hydrocarbons serve as a fundamental topic within organic chemistry. Hydrocarbons are organic compounds composed exclusively of carbon and hydrogen atoms. The class primarily focuses on four major types of hydrocarbons: alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatic hydrocarbons.
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This chapter discusses the properties and reactions of alkynes, organic compounds containing carbon-carbon triple bonds. It covers the IUPAC nomenclature of alkynes, their physical properties, methods of synthesis including from acetylides and elimination reactions, and characteristic reactions such as hydration, hydroboration-oxidation, oxidation, and ozonolysis. Alkynes undergo addition reactions similar to alkenes as well as unique reactions due to the greater acidity of their hydrogen atoms. Terminal alkynes can be deprotonated to form acetylide anions that act as strong nucleophiles in reactions.
Haloalkanes and haloarenes are organic compounds formed by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon with halogen atoms. They are classified based on whether the halogen is attached to an aliphatic or aromatic group. Haloalkanes and haloarenes undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions with reagents such as hydroxide ion, cyanide ion, ammonia, and water. The rate of these substitution reactions depends on the strength of the carbon-halogen bond. In alcoholic solutions, haloalkanes react with hydroxide ion via an elimination mechanism to form alkenes. Haloalkanes are important intermediates in organic synthesis due to their reactivity and ease of preparation.
Haloalkanes and haloarenes are compounds formed by the replacement of hydrogen atoms in hydrocarbons by halogen atoms. This results in alkyl halides (haloalkanes) when the halogen is attached to an aliphatic skeleton, and aryl halides (haloarenes) when attached to an aromatic ring. They are important intermediates in organic synthesis due to their ease of preparation and high reactivity. Haloalkanes react through nucleophilic substitution, where the halogen is displaced by a nucleophile such as hydroxide, cyanide, ammonia or water. The rate depends on the strength of the carbon-halogen bond. In alcoholic solution, elimination occurs instead of substitution, producing
Review on Organic Chemical Reactions (1).pptAliceCRivera
I apologize, upon further review I do not have enough information to determine the products of the reaction you asked about. The document provided describes various types of organic chemical reactions but does not include any specific reactions to analyze.
This document discusses the nomenclature, properties and reactions of alcohols, phenols, and ethers. It defines each compound group and provides IUPAC names for examples. Alcohols are formed by replacing hydrogen in hydrocarbons with hydroxyl groups. Phenols have hydroxyl groups attached to aromatic systems. Ethers have an alkoxy or aryloxy group in place of hydrogen. The document outlines common preparation methods for each group and describes physical properties like boiling points. It also explains reactions like dehydration, esterification, and oxidation of alcohols.
This chapter discusses various addition reactions of alkenes, including electrophilic and free radical additions. Electrophilic additions involve the attack of an electrophile on the pi-bonded electrons of the alkene double bond. Common electrophiles discussed are HX (X = halogen), H2O, ROH, and halogens. Free radical additions involve the anti-Markovnikov addition of HBr in the presence of peroxides. Other topics covered include hydroboration-oxidation, oxymercuration-demercuration, epoxidation, and rearrangements that can occur through carbocation intermediates. Mechanisms and stereochemistry are discussed for each reaction type.
This chapter discusses various addition reactions of alkenes, including electrophilic and free radical additions. Electrophilic additions follow Markovnikov's rule, adding the electrophile to the carbon with the greater number of hydrogens. Free radical additions proceed anti-Markovnikov. Other reactions covered include hydroboration-oxidation, oxymercuration-demercuration, halohydrin formation, epoxidation, and hydrogenation. Mechanisms are provided for each reaction type.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
Authoring a personal GPT for your research and practice: How we created the Q...Leonel Morgado
Thematic analysis in qualitative research is a time-consuming and systematic task, typically done using teams. Team members must ground their activities on common understandings of the major concepts underlying the thematic analysis, and define criteria for its development. However, conceptual misunderstandings, equivocations, and lack of adherence to criteria are challenges to the quality and speed of this process. Given the distributed and uncertain nature of this process, we wondered if the tasks in thematic analysis could be supported by readily available artificial intelligence chatbots. Our early efforts point to potential benefits: not just saving time in the coding process but better adherence to criteria and grounding, by increasing triangulation between humans and artificial intelligence. This tutorial will provide a description and demonstration of the process we followed, as two academic researchers, to develop a custom ChatGPT to assist with qualitative coding in the thematic data analysis process of immersive learning accounts in a survey of the academic literature: QUAL-E Immersive Learning Thematic Analysis Helper. In the hands-on time, participants will try out QUAL-E and develop their ideas for their own qualitative coding ChatGPT. Participants that have the paid ChatGPT Plus subscription can create a draft of their assistants. The organizers will provide course materials and slide deck that participants will be able to utilize to continue development of their custom GPT. The paid subscription to ChatGPT Plus is not required to participate in this workshop, just for trying out personal GPTs during it.
Travis Hills' Endeavors in Minnesota: Fostering Environmental and Economic Pr...Travis Hills MN
Travis Hills of Minnesota developed a method to convert waste into high-value dry fertilizer, significantly enriching soil quality. By providing farmers with a valuable resource derived from waste, Travis Hills helps enhance farm profitability while promoting environmental stewardship. Travis Hills' sustainable practices lead to cost savings and increased revenue for farmers by improving resource efficiency and reducing waste.
Current Ms word generated power point presentation covers major details about the micronuclei test. It's significance and assays to conduct it. It is used to detect the micronuclei formation inside the cells of nearly every multicellular organism. It's formation takes place during chromosomal sepration at metaphase.
Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...AbdullaAlAsif1
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
2. ThiolsThiols (R–S–HR–S–H) and sulfidessulfides (R–S–R’R–S–R’) are sulfur
analogs of alcohols and ethers, respectively
Sulfur replaces oxygen
3. ThiolsThiols (RSHRSH), also known as mercaptans, are sulfur
analogs of alcohols
They are named with the suffix ––thiolthiol
SHSH group is called “mercapto groupmercapto group” (“capturer of
mercury”)
4. SulfidesSulfides (RSR’RSR’) are sulfur analogs of ethers
◦ They are named by rules used for ethers, with sulfidesulfide in place of
etherether for simple compounds and alkylthioalkylthio in place of alkoxyalkoxy
32. Chapter 8 32
Electrons in pi bond are loosely held.
Electrophiles are attracted to the pi electrons.
Carbocation intermediate forms.
Nucleophile adds to the carbocation.
Net result is addition to the double bond.
=>
33. Chapter 8 33
Step 1: Pi electrons attack the electrophile.
C C + E
+
C
E
C +
C
E
C + + Nuc:
_
C
E
C
Nuc
=>
• Step 2: Nucleophile attacks the carbocation.
35. Chapter 8 35
Protonation of double bond yields the most stable
carbocation. Positive charge goes to the carbon
that was not protonated.
X
=>
+ Br
_
+
+
CH3 C
CH3
CH CH3
H
CH3 C
CH3
CH CH3
H
H Br
CH3 C
CH3
CH CH3
36. Chapter 8 36
CH3 C
CH3
CH CH3
H Br
CH3 C
CH3
CH CH3
H
+
+ Br
_
CH3 C
CH3
CH CH3
H
+
Br
_
CH3 C
CH3
CH CH3
HBr
=>
37. Chapter 8 37
Markovnikov’s Rule: The proton of an acid adds
to the carbon in the double bond that already has
the most H’s. “Rich get richer.”
More general Markovnikov’s Rule: In an
electrophilic addition to an alkene, the
electrophile adds in such a way as to form the
most stable intermediate.
HCl, HBr, and HI add to alkenes to form
Markovnikov products. =>
38. Chapter 8 38
In the presence of peroxides, HBr adds to an
alkene to form the “anti-Markovnikov” product.
Only HBr has the right bond energy.
HCl bond is too strong.
HI bond tends to break heterolytically to form
ions.
=>
39. Chapter 8 39
Peroxide O-O bond breaks easily to form free
radicals.
+R O H Br R O H + Br
O OR R +R O O R
heat
• Hydrogen is abstracted from HBr.
Electrophile
=>
40. Chapter 8 40
Bromine adds to the double bond.
+
C
Br
C H Br+ C
Br
C
H
Br
Electrophile =>
C
Br
CC CBr +
• Hydrogen is abstracted from HBr.
41. Chapter 8 41
Tertiary radical is more stable, so that
intermediate forms faster. =>
CH3 C
CH3
CH CH3 Br+
CH3 C
CH3
CH CH3
Br
CH3 C
CH3
CH CH3
Br
X
42. Chapter 8 42
Reverse of dehydration of alcohol
Use very dilute solutions of H2SO4 or H3PO4 to
drive equilibrium toward hydration.
=>
C C + H2O
H
+
C
H
C
OH
alkene
alcohol
43. Chapter 8 43
+C
H
C
+
H2O C
H
C
O H
H
+
+ H2OC
H
C
O H
H
+
C
H
C
O
H
H3O+
+ =>
C C OH H
H
+
+ + H2OC
H
C
+
44. Chapter 8 44
Markovnikov product is formed.
+
CH3 C
CH3
CH CH3 OH H
H
+
+ H2O+
H
CH3CH
CH3
CCH3
H2O
CH3 C
CH3
CH CH3
HO
H H
+
H2O
CH3 C
CH3
CH CH3
HO
H
=>
45. Chapter 8 45
Oxymercuration-Demercuration
◦ Markovnikov product formed
◦ Anti addition of H-OH
◦ No rearrangements
Hydroboration
◦ Anti-Markovnikov product formed
◦ Syn addition of H-OH
=>
46. Chapter 8 46
Reagent is mercury(II) acetate which
dissociates slightly to form +
Hg(OAc).
+
Hg(OAc) is the electrophile that attacks the pi
bond.
CH3 C
O
O Hg O C
O
CH3 CH3 C
O
O
_
Hg O C
O
CH3
+
=>
47. Chapter 8 47
The intermediate is a cyclic mercurinium ion, a
three-membered ring with a positive charge.
C C
+
Hg(OAc) C C
Hg
+
OAc
=>
48. Chapter 8 48
Water approaches the mercurinium ion from
the side opposite the ring (anti addition).
Water adds to the more substituted carbon to
form the Markovnikov product.
C C
Hg
+
OAc
H2O
C
O
+
C
Hg
H
H
OAc
H2O
C
O
C
Hg
H
OAc
=>
49. Chapter 8 49
Sodium borohydride, a reducing agent, replaces
the mercury with hydrogen.
C
O
C
Hg
H
OAc
4 4 C
O
C
H
H
+ NaBH4 + 4 OH
_
+ NaB(OH)4
+ 4 Hg + 4 OAc
_
=>
50. Chapter 8 50
Predict the product when the given alkene reacts
with aqueous mercuric acetate, followed by
reduction with sodium borohydride.
CH3
D
(1) Hg(OAc)2, H2O
(2) NaBH4
=>
OH
CH3
D
H
anti addition
51. Chapter 8 51
If the nucleophile is an alcohol, ROH, instead of
water, HOH, the product is an ether.
C C
(1) Hg(OAc)2,
CH3OH
C
O
C
Hg(OAc)
H3C
(2) NaBH4
C
O
C
H3C
H
=>
52. Chapter 8 52
Borane, BH3, adds a hydrogen to the most
substituted carbon in the double bond.
The alkylborane is then oxidized to the alcohol
which is the anti-Mark product.
C C
(1) BH3
C
H
C
BH2
(2) H2O2, OH
-
C
H
C
OH
=>
53. Chapter 8 53
Borane exists as a dimer, B2H6, in equilibrium with
its monomer.
Borane is a toxic, flammable, explosive gas.
Safe when complexed with tetrahydrofuran.
THF THF .
BH3
O B2H6 O
+
B
-
H
H
H
+2 2 =>
54. Chapter 8 54
The electron-deficient borane adds to
the least-substituted carbon.
The other carbon acquires a positive charge.
H adds to adjacent C on same side (syn).
=>
55. Chapter 8 55
Borane prefers least-substituted carbon due to steric hindrance as
well as charge distribution.
=>
C C
H3C
H3C
H
H
+ BH3
B
CC H
CH3
H3C
H
H
C
CH
H
H
CH3
CH3
C
C
H
H
H3C
CH3
H
3
56. Chapter 8 56
Oxidation of the alkyl borane with basic
hydrogen peroxide produces the alcohol.
Orientation is anti-Markovnikov.
CH3 C
CH3
H
C
H
H
B
H2O2, NaOH
H2O
CH3 C
CH3
H
C
H
H
OH
=>
57. Chapter 8 57
Predict the product when the given alkene reacts with borane
in THF, followed by oxidation with basic hydrogen
peroxide.
CH3
D
(1)
(2)
BH3, THF
H2O2, OH-
=>
syn addition
H
CH3
D
OH
58. Chapter 8 58
Alkene + H2 → Alkane
Catalyst required, usually Pt, Pd, or Ni.
Finely divided metal, heterogeneous
Syn addition
=>
59. Chapter 8 59
Insertion of -CH2 group into a double bond
produces a cyclopropane ring.
Three methods:
◦ Diazomethane
◦ Simmons-Smith: methylene iodide and Zn(Cu)
◦ Alpha elimination, haloform
=>
60. Chapter 8 60
Extremely toxic and explosive. =>
N N CH2 N N CH2
diazomethane
N N CH2
heat or uv light
N2 +
carbene
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
C
C
C
C
H
H
61. Chapter 8 61
Best method for preparing cyclopropanes.
CH2I2 + Zn(Cu) ICH2ZnI
a carbenoid
CH2I2
Zn, CuCl
=>
62. Chapter 8 62
Haloform reacts with base.
H and X taken from same carbon
CHCl3 + KOH K
+ -
CCl3 + H2O
CCl
Cl
Cl Cl
-
+C
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
CHCl3
KOH, H2O
=>
63. Chapter 8 63
Cis-trans isomerism maintained around carbons
that were in the double bond.
C C
H
CH3
H
H3C NaOH, H2O
CHBr3
C C
H
CH3
H
H3C
BrBr
=>
64. Chapter 8 64
Cl2, Br2, and sometimes I2 add to a double bond
to form a vicinal dibromide.
Anti addition, so reaction is stereospecific.
CC + Br2 C C
Br
Br
=>
65. Chapter 8 65
Pi electrons attack the bromine molecule.
A bromide ion splits off.
Intermediate is a cyclic bromonium ion.
CC + Br Br CC
Br
+ Br =>
66. Chapter 8 66
Halide ion approaches from side opposite the
three-membered ring.
CC
Br
Br
CC
Br
Br
=>
68. Chapter 8 68
Add Br2 in CCl4 (dark, red-brown color) to an
alkene in the presence of light.
The color quickly disappears as the bromine adds
to the double bond.
“Decolorizing bromine” is the chemical test for the
presence of a double bond.
=>
69. Chapter 8 69
If a halogen is added in the presence of water,
a halohydrin is formed.
Water is the nucleophile, instead of halide.
Product is Markovnikov and anti.
CC
Br
H2O
CC
Br
O
H H
H2O
CC
Br
O
H
+ H3O
+
=>
70. Chapter 8 70
The most highly substituted carbon has the most
positive charge, so nucleophile attacks there.
=>
71. Chapter 8 71
Predict the product when the given alkene reacts with
chlorine in water.
CH3
D
Cl2, H2O
=>
OH
CH3
D
Cl
72. Chapter 8 72
Alkene reacts with a peroxyacid to form an
epoxide (also called oxirane).
Usual reagent is peroxybenzoic acid.
CC + R C
O
O O H CC
O
R C
O
O H+
=>
73. Chapter 8 73
One-step concerted reaction. Several bonds
break and form simultaneously.
O
C
O
R
H
C
C
OO
H
O
C
O
RC
C
+
=>
74. Chapter 8 74
Since there is no opportunity for rotation around
the double-bonded carbons, cis or trans
stereochemistry is maintained.
CC
CH3 CH3
H H Ph C
O
O O H
CC
CH3 CH3
H H
O
=>
75. Chapter 8 75
Acid catalyzed.
Water attacks the protonated epoxide.
Trans diol is formed.
CC
O
H3O
+
CC
O
H
H2O
CC
O
OH
H H H2O
CC
O
OH
H
=>
76. Chapter 8 76
To synthesize the glycol without isolating the
epoxide, use aqueous peroxyacetic acid or
peroxyformic acid.
The reaction is stereospecific.
CH3COOH
O
OH
H
OH
H
=>
77. Chapter 8 77
Alkene is converted to a cis-1,2-diol,
Two reagents:
◦ Osmium tetroxide (expensive!), followed by hydrogen
peroxide or
◦ Cold, dilute aqueous potassium permanganate,
followed by hydrolysis with base
=>
78. Chapter 8 78
Concerted syn addition of two oxygens to form a
cyclic ester.
C
C
Os
O O
OO
C
C
O O
OO
Os
C
C
OH
OH
+ OsO4
H2O2
=>
79. Chapter 8 79
If a chiral carbon is formed, only one
stereoisomer will be produced (or a pair of
enantiomers).
C
C
CH2CH3
H CH2CH3
C
C
CH2CH3
CH2CH3
OH
OH
H
HH2O2
H
(2)
(1) OsO4
cis-3-hexene meso-3,4-hexanediol
=>
80. Chapter 8 80
Both the pi and sigma bonds break.
C=C becomes C=O.
Two methods:
◦ Warm or concentrated or acidic KMnO4.
◦ Ozonolysis
Used to determine the position of a double bond in
an unknown.
=>
81. Chapter 8 81
Permanganate is a strong oxidizing agent.
Glycol initially formed is further oxidized.
Disubstituted carbons become ketones.
Monosubstituted carbons become carboxylic
acids.
Terminal =CH2 becomes CO2.
=>
82. Chapter 8 82
CC
CH3 CH3
H CH3 KMnO4
(warm, conc.)
C C
CH3
CH3
OHOH
H3C
H
C
O
H3C
H
C
CH3
CH3
O
C
O
H3C
OH
+
=>
83. Chapter 8 83
Reaction with ozone forms an ozonide.
Ozonides are not isolated, but are treated with
a mild reducing agent like Zn or dimethyl
sulfide.
Milder oxidation than permanganate.
Products formed are ketones or aldehydes.
=>
84. Chapter 8 84
CC
CH3 CH3
H CH3 O3
C
H3C
H
O O
C
CH3
CH3
O
Ozonide
+
(CH3)2S
C
H3C
H
O C
CH3
CH3
O CH3 S
O
CH3
DMSO
=>