Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. It acts on ionotropic AMPA, kainate, and NMDA receptors as well as metabotropic receptors. Glutamate is cleared from the synaptic cleft by glial cells and recycled back to neurons. GABA and glycine are the major inhibitory neurotransmitters, acting on ionotropic GABAA and glycine receptors. Other important neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, monoamines like dopamine and serotonin, peptides, nitric oxide, and endocannabinoids.

1. Central neurotransmitters
Domina Petric, MD

2. AMINO ACIDS
I.

3. Excitatory synaptic transmission is
mediated by glutamate.
Glutamate is present in very high
concentrations in excitatory synaptic
vesicles: 100 mM.
Glutamate is released into the synaptic
cleft by Ca2+-dependent exocytosis.
Glutamate

4. Glutamate
• The released glutamate acts on postsynaptic
glutamate receptors.
• It is cleared by glutamate transporters present
on surrounding glia.
• In glia, glutamate is converted to glutamine by
glutamine synthetase, released from glia.
• Glutamine is taken up by the nerve terminal and
converted back to glutamate by the enzyme
glutaminase.
• The high concentration of glutamate in synaptic
vesicles is achieved by the vesicular glutamate
transporter (VGLUT).

5. Glutamate ionotropic receptors
There are three subtypes based on
the action of selective agonists:
• α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-
methylisoxazole-4-propionic
acid (AMPA)
• kainicacid (KA)
• N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)

6. Glutamate ionotropic receptors
All the ionotropic
receptors are
composed of 4
subunits.

7. AMPA receptors
• AMPA receptors are present
on all neurons.
• GluA1-GluA4 subunits.
• The majority of AMPA
receptors contain the GluA2
subunit and are permeable to
Na+ and K+, but not to Ca2+.

8. AMPA receptors
• Some AMPA receptors,
typically present on
inhibitory interneurons,
lack the GluA2 subunit.
• Those AMPA receptors
are permeable to Ca2+.

9. Kainate receptors
• Kainate receptors are expressed at
high levels in the hippocampus,
cerebellum and spinal cord.
• They are formed from a number of
subunit combination GluK1-GluK5.
• Kainate receptors are permeable to
Na+ and K+, and in some subunit
combinations, also for Ca2+.

10. NMDA receptors
• NMDA receptors are ubiquitous as
AMPA receptors: they are present
on all neurons in the CNS.
• All NMDA receptors require the
presence of the subunit GluN1.
• The channel also contains one or
two NR2 subunits: GluN2A-
GluN2D.

11. NMDA receptors
• All NMDA receptors are highly
permeable to Ca2+ as well as to Na+
and K+.
• In addition to glutamate binding, the
channel also requires the binding of
glycine to a separate site.
• Glycine site appears to be saturated
at normal ambient levels of glycine.

12. NMDA receptors
• AMPA and kainate receptors
activation results in channel
opening at resting membrane
potential, whereas NMDA
receptor activation does not.
• This is due to the voltage
dependent block of the NMDA
pore by extracellular Mg2+.

13. NMDA receptors
• When the neuron is strongly
depolarized, Mg2+ is expelled
and the channel opens.
• Two requirements for NMDA
receptor channel opening:
glutamate must bind the
receptor and the membrane
must be depolarized.

14. NMDA receptors
• The rise in intracellular calcium ions
results in a long-lasting
enhancement in synaptic strength:
long-term potentiation (LTP).
• LTP can last for many hours or even
days.
• It is an important cellular
mechanism underlying learning and
memory.

15. Metabotropic glutamate receptors
G protein-coupled receptors
that act indirectly on ion
channels via G proteins.
Metabotropic receptors
(mGluR1-mGluR8) are
divided into three groups.

16. Metabotropic glutamate receptors
• Group I receptors are typically
located postsynaptically.
• They cause excitation by activating
a non-selective cation channel.
• These receptors also activate
phospholipase C, leading to
inositol trisphosphate-mediated
intracellular Ca2+ release.

17. Metabotropic glutamate receptors
• Group II and III receptors are
typically located on presynaptic
nerve terminals.
• They act as inhibitory
autoreceptors.
• Activation of these receptors causes
the inhibition of Ca2+ channels,
resulting in inhibition of transmitter
release.

18. Metabotropic glutamate receptors
• Type II and III receptors are
activated only when the
concentration of glutamate rises to
high levels during repetitive
stimulation of the synapse.
• Activation of these receptors
causes the inhibition of adenylyl
cyclase and decreases cAMP
generation.

19. Postsynaptic density
• The postsynaptic membrane at
excitatory synapses is
thickened.
• Postsynaptic density is highly
complex structure containing
glutamate receptors, signaling
proteins, scaffolding proteins
and cytoskeletal proteins.

20. Postsynaptic density
• A typical excitatory synapse
contains AMPA receptors, which
tend to be located toward the
periphery, and NMDA receptors.
• NMDA receptors are concentrated
in the center.
• Kainate receptors are present at a
subset of excitatory synapses.

21. Postsynaptic density
Metabotropic glutamate receptors
(group I) are localized just outside
the postsynaptic density.
These receptors are also present
at some excitatory synapses.

22. GABA and glycine
• Inhibitory neurotransmitters
released from local interneurons.
• Interneurons that release glycine
are restricted to the spinal cord
and brainstem.
• Interneurons releasing GABA are
present throughout the CNS,
including the spinal cord.

23. GABA and glycine
• Some interneurons in the spinal
cord can release both GABA and
glycine.
• Glycine receptors are pentameric
structures that are selectively
permeable to Cl-.
• Strychnine selectively blocks
glycine receptors.

24. GABA receptors
• GABAA and GABAB receptors.
• Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials in
many areas of the brain have a
fast and slow component.
• The fast component is mediated by
GABAA receptors.
• The slow component is mediated
by GABAB receptors.

25. GABA receptors
• GABAA receptors are ionotropic
receptors.
• These receptors are pentameric
structures that are selectively
permeable to Cl-.
• GABAA receptors are selectively
inhibited by picrotoxin and
bicuculline: generalized
convulsions.

26. GABA receptors
• GABAB receptors are metabotropic
receptors that are selectively
activated by the antispastic drug
baclofen.
• These receptors are coupled to G
proteins, that either inhibit Ca2+
channels or activate K+ channels,
wich depends on their cellular
location.

27. GABA receptors
• The GABAB component of the
inhibitory postsynaptic potential is
due to a selective increase in K+
conductance.
• This inhibitory postsynaptic
potential is long-lasting and slow
because the coupling of receptor
activation of K+ channel opening is
indirect and delayed.

28. GABA receptors
GABAB receptors are localized to
the perisynaptic region and
require the spillover of GABA
from the synaptic cleft.
GABAB receptors are also present
on the axon terminals of many
excitatory and inhibitory
synapses.
These receptors also inhibit
adenylyl cyclase and decrease
cAMP generation.

29. ACETYLCHOLINE
II.

30. Acetylcholine
• Most CNS responses to
acetylcholine are mediated by a
large family of G protein-coupled
muscarinic receptors.
• At a few sites, acetylcholine
causes slow inhibition of the
neuron by activating the M2
subtype of receptor, which opens
potassium channels.

31. Acetylcholine
A far more widespread
muscarinic action in response
to acetylcholine is a slow
excitation.
This slow excitation is in some
cases mediated by M1
receptors.

32. Acetylcholine
A number of pathways contain
acetylcholine, including neurons in the
neostriatum, the medial septal nucleus
and the reticular formation.
Cholinergic pathways are important for
cognitive function, especially memory.
Presenile dementia of the Alzheimer type
is associated with a profound loss of
cholinergic neurons.

33. MONOAMINES
III.

34. Monoamines
Catecholamines:
dopamine and
norepinephrine.
5-hydroxytryptamine
(serotonin)

35. Dopamine
The major pathways are:
• the projection linking the substantia
nigra to the neostriatum (target for
drug levodopa)
• the projection linking the ventral
tegmental region to limbic
structures, particularly the limbic
cortex (target of antipsychotic
drugs)

36. Dopamine
• Dopamine-containing neurons in
the tuberobasal ventral
hypothalamus play an important
role in regulating
hypothalamohypophysial function.
• Dopamine receptors are D1-
like (D1 and D5) and D2-like
(D2, D3, D4).

37. Dopamine
All dopamine receptors
are metabotropic.
Dopamine generally
exerts a slow inhibitory
action on CNS neurons.

38. Norepinephrine
• Most noradrenergic neurons are
located in the locus caeruleus or
the lateral tegmental area of the
reticular formation.
• Most regions of the CNS receive
diffuse noradrenergic input.
• All noradrenergic receptor
subtypes are metabotropic.

39. Norepinephrine
• Norepinephrine can hyperpolarize
neurons by increasing potassium
conductance.
• This effect is mediated by α2
receptors.
• In many regions of the CNS,
norepinephrine enhances excitatory
inputs by both indirect and direct
mechanisms.

40. Norepinephrine
• The indirect mechanism involves
disinhibition: inhibitory local
circuit neurons are inhibited.
• The direct mechanism involves
blockade of potassium
conductances that slow neuronal
discharge, which is mediated by
either α1 or β receptors.

41. Norepinephrine
Facilitation of excitatory
synaptic transmission is
in accordance with
many of the behavioral
processes: attention
and arousal.

42. 5-hydroxytryptamine
• 5-HT, serotonin pathways originate
from neurons in the raphe or
midline regions of the pons and
upper brainstem.
• Serotonin is contained in
unmyelinated fibers that diffusely
innervate most regions of the CNS,
but the density of the innervation
varies.

43. 5-hydroxytryptamine
• All of serotonine receptors, except
5-HT3 receptor, are metabotropic.
• The ionotropic 5-HT3 receptor
exerts a rapid excitatory action at
a very limited number of sites in
the CNS.
• In most areas of the CNS, 5-HT
has a strong inhibitory action.

44. 5-hydroxytryptamine
• Strong inhibitory action is
mediated by 5-HT1A receptors and
is associated with membrane
hyperpolarization: an incrase in
potassium conductance.
• 5-HT1A receptors and GABAB
receptors activate the same
population of potassium channels.

45. 5-hydroxytryptamine
• Some cell types are slowly
excited by serotonin owing to
its blockade of potassium
channels via 5-HT2 or 5-HT4
receptors.
• Both excitatory and inhibitory
actions can occur on the same
neuron.

46. 5-hydroxytryptamine
Regulatory functions of serotonin-
containing neurons are:
• sleep
• temperature
• appetite
• neuroendocrine control

47. PEPTIDES
IV.

48. Peptides
• opioid peptides (enkephalins,
endorphins)
• neurotensin
• substance P
• somatostatin
• cholecystokinin
• vasoactive intestinal polypeptide
• neuropeptide Y
• thyrotropin-releasing hormone…

49. Peptides
• Peptides often coexist with a
conventional nonpeptide
transmitter in the same neuron.
• Substance P is contained in and
released from small unmyelinated
primary sensory neurons in the
spinal cord and brainstem: slow
excitatory postsynaptic potential in
target neurons.

50. Peptides
• These sensory fibers transmit
noxious stimuli.
• Substance P receptor antagonists
can modify responses to certain
types of pain, but do not block the
response.
• Glutamate is released with
substance P from these synapses:
role in transmitting pain stimuli.

51. NITRIC OXIDE
V.

52. Nitric oxide
The CNS contains a substantial amount
of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) within
certain classes of neurons.
Neuronal NOS is an enzyme
activated by calcium-calmodulin.
Activation of NMDA receptors, which
increases intracellular calcium, results in
the generation of nitric oxide.

53. Nitric oxide
Role of nitric oxide in
neuronal signaling in the
CNS may be long-term
depression of synaptic
transmission in the
cerebellum.

54. ENDOCANNABINOIDS
VI.

55. Endocannabinoids
• The primary psychoactive ingredient
in cannabis, ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol
(∆9-THC), affects the brain mainly by
activating a specific cannabinoid
receptor, CB1.
• CB1 receptors are expressed at high
levels in many brain regions.
• They are primarily located on
presynaptic terminals.

56. Endocannabinoids
• Several endogenous brain lipids,
like anandamide and 2-
arachidonylglycerol (2-AG), are
CB1 ligands.
• These ligands are not stored, but
are rapidly synthesized by neurons
in response to depolarization and
consequent calcium influx.

57. Endocannabinoids
• Activation of metabotropic
receptors (by acetylcholine and
glutamate) can also activate
the formation of 2-AG.
• Endogenous cannabinoids can
function as retrograde synaptic
messengers.

58. Endocannabinoids
• Endogenous cannabinoids are
released from postsynaptic
neurons and travel backward
across synapses, activating
CB1 receptors on presynaptic
neurons and suppressing
transmitter release: retrograde
synaptic messengers.

59. Endocannabinoids
This suppression can be
transient or long lasting,
depending on the pattern of
activity.
Cannabinoids may affect
memory, cognition and pain
perception by this mechanism.

60. Literature
• Katzung, Masters, Trevor.
Basic and clinical
pharmacology.