1) Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals from neurons. They are synthesized from precursors, stored in vesicles, released into the synapse, bind to receptors, and are then inactivated. 2) The major neurotransmitters are acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, glutamate, GABA, and serotonin. Acetylcholine, dopamine, and norepinephrine are both excitatory and inhibitory. Glutamate and aspartate are excitatory, while glycine, GABA, and serotonin are inhibitory. 3) Neurotransmitters are involved in various diseases when they are deficient or excessive, such as acetylcholine in Alzheimer's, dopamine in Parkinson's, and serotonin

2. HAIDER

3. NEUROTRANSMITTERS
&
THEIR MODE OF ACTION

4. INTRODUCTION
Neurotransmittersare chemical messengers that
transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell across
a synapse.
Target cell may be a neuron or some other kind of cell like
a muscle or gland cell.
Necessary for rapid communication in synapse.
Neurotransmitters are packaged into synapticvesicles -
presynaptic side of a synapse.

5. Illustration of the major elements in chemical synaptic transmission.

6. Axon
Vesicles (containing
neurotransmitters)
Synaptic cleft
Receptors
Receiving neuron
Pre synaptic
knob
Post synaptic
knob
A schematic representation of a chemical synapse

7. PROPERTIES OF
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
1) Synthesized in the presynaptic neuron
2) Localized to vesicles in the presynaptic neuron
3) Released from the presynaptic neuron under
physiological condition
4) Rapidly removed from the synaptic cleft by uptake
or degradation
5) Presence of receptor on the post-synaptic neuron.
6) Binding to the receptor elicits a biologicalresponse

8. TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
BOTH
Acetylcholine
Nor epinephrine
EXCITATORY
Glutamate
Aspartate
Nitric oxide
INHIBITORY
Glycine
GABA
Serotonin
Dopamine

10. ACETYLCHOLINE (ACh)
Acetylcholine was the first neurotransmitter to be discovered.
Isolated in 1921 by a German biologist named OttoLoewi.
Uses choline as a precursor - cholinergicneurotransmitter.
Used by the Autonomic Nervous System, such as smooth muscles
of the heart, as an inhibitory neurotransmitter.
Responsible for stimulation of muscles, including the muscles of
the gastro-intestinal system.
Used everywhere in the brain.
Related to Alzheimer'sDisease.

11. DOPAMINE
Is synthesized in three steps from the amino acidtyrosine.
Associated with reward mechanisms inbrain.
Generally involved in regulatory motor activity, in mood,
motivation and attention.
Schizophrenicshave too much dopamine.
Patients with Parkinson'sDiseasehave too little
dopamine.
Dopamine

12. NOREPINEPHRINE (noradrenaline)
Synthesizeddirectly from dopamine.
Direct precursor to epinepherine.
It is synthesized in four steps from tyrosine.
Synthesized within vesicles.
Norepinephrine is strongly associated with bringing our
nervous systems into "high alert."
It increases our heart rate and our blood pressure.
It is also important for forming memories.
Norepinephrine

13. GLUTAMATE
It is an amino acid
It the most commonly found
excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.
It is involved in most aspects of normal brain
function including cognition, memory and learning.
Glutamate is formed from α –ketoglutarate, an
intermediate of Kreb’s cycle.

14. γ-AMINO BUTYRIC ACID (GABA)
Synthesized directly from glutamate.
GABAis the most important inhibitory neurotransmitter
Present in high concentrations in the CNS,preventing the
brain from becoming overexcited.
IfGABAis lacking in certain parts of the brain, epilepsy
results.
GABA

15. SEROTONIN (5-HT)
Synthesized in two steps from the aminoacid
tryptophan
Regulates attention and other complex cognitive
functions, such as sleep (dreaming), eating,mood,
pain regulation.
Too little serotonin has been shown to lead to
depression, anger control etc.

17. 1.Neurotransmitters are
synthesized from precursors
under the influence of enzymes
2.Stored in vesicles
3.Neurotransmitter molecules
that leak from their vesicles are
destroyed by enzymes
4.Action potential cause vesicle
to fuse with synapse and release
neurotransmitters
5.Some of it binds with auto
receptor and inhibit subsequent
neurotransmitter release
6.Rest of it bind to post
synaptic receptors.
7.Released neurotransmitters
are deactivated either by re
uptake or enzyme degradation.

18. Steps in neurotransmitter processing are:
Synthesis: Neurotransmitters are synthesized by the
enzymatic transformation of precursors.
Storage: They are packaged inside synaptic vesicles.
Release: They are released from presynaptic terminal by
exocytosis when calcium enters axon terminal
during an action potential
Diffuse across the synaptic cleft to the
postsynaptic membrane.
Binding: They bind to receptor proteins.
Inactivation: The neurotransmitter is degraded either by
being broken down enzymatically, or reused by
active reuptake.

20. MODE OF ACTION OF ACETYLCHOLINE
Release
• When nerve impulse reaches pre synaptic knob Ca
channels open.
• Increased Ca ions fusion of vesicle to
presynaptic membrane and release of ACh into cleft.
Binding
• ACh bind to receptors in post synaptic membrane.
• Ion channels open inflow of Na and K ions
• Depolarisation and formation of action potential.
• Propogation of action potential & contraction of
fibres.
Deactivation
• ACh is hydrolysed by acetyl cholinesterase.
• Choline taken back to presynaptic domain for
resynthesis of Ach.

21. ALCOHOL & NEUROTRANSMITTERS
It bindsdirectlytoreceptors for ACh,
serotonin, GABA and glutamate.
It enhancestheeffects ofthe GABA,
which is an inhibitory neurotransmitter.
◦ Enhancing an inhibitor make things sluggish.
◦ The neuron activity is diminished- sedative effectsof alcohol.
Alcohol inhibitsglutamatereceptor function.
◦ This causes discoordination, slurred speech, staggering,
memory disruption, and blackout.
Alcohol raisesdopamine levels.
◦ This leads to excitement, pleasure and later addiction.

22. NICOTINE &
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Nicotine imitatesthe action of ACh&
binds to ACh receptor.
Like acetylcholine, nicotine leads to a burst of
receptor activity.
Nicotine activatescholinergic neuronsin many
different regions throughout your brain
simultaneously.
This stimulation leads to:
◦ Increased release of glutamate.
◦ Stimulation of cholinergic neurons promotes the
release of dopamine.The production of dopamine
causes feelings of reward and pleasure.

23. DISEASES ASSOCIATEDWITH
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
NEUROTRANSMITTER
Acetylcholine
Dopamine
GABA
Serotonin
Glutamate
DISEASE
Alzheimer’s
Parkinson’s disease
Schizophrenia
Epilepsy
Migraines
ADD
Depression
Migraine
stroke

24. REFERENCES
Knut Schmidt Nielsen, Animal Physiology – Adaptation
and environment, 4th edition, Cambridge University
Press, U.K
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/12/111205
165907.htm
http://www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/courses/1010
/mangels/neuro/transmission/transmission.html
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/NeNu/Neurotransmitters
.html#b