Central Asia- Afghanistan pdf

BA V SEM
BAA 314: INDIA’S CULTURAL CONTACTS WITH OUTSIDE WORLD
BY
Prachi Virag Sontakke

BOOKS
• U.N.Ghoshal: Ancient Indian Culture in Afghanistan
• R.C.Majumdar: Hindu Colonies in the Far east.
• P.C.Bagchi: India & Central Asia
• B.N.Puri: Buddhism in Central Asia.

Central Asia: The region
• Represents a cultural area the boundaries of which are difficult to ascertain
• Encyclopaedia Britannica: Former Soviet republics of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan,
Kirghizstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan
• Humbolt: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kirghizstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, parts of
Afghanistan, Pakistan, Xinjiang & other Mongolian Autonomous regions of China
• UNESCO : Region between Iran to Mongolia including Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan,
Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kirghizstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Xinjiang.

Historical background
• Prehistoric
• Bactria-Margiana Archaeological complex: 2nd millennium BCE
• Scythians-Indo Greeks
• Huns
• Persian, Macedonian, Mauryan control of some posts
• Kusanas
• Chinese dynasties: Ming, Tang, Han etc
• Turks
• Mongols

Religious background
• Multiple cultures: Multiple faiths
• Shamanism: Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a
practitioner, a shaman, who is believed to interact with a spirit
world through trance.
• Zoroastrianism: propounded by Zoroaster in 5th cent BCE in Iran
• Manichaeism: founded by Mani in Persia in 3rd cent CE who viewed
himself as the final successor in a long line of prophets, beginning
with Adam and including Buddha, Zoroaster and Jesus.
• Buddhism: various sects.
• Islam.

Discovery of Central Asia: Explorers, Excavators &
Conservators
• Interest in antiquarian remains piqued explorations in Central Asia by
scholars from various countries.
• French
• German
• Japanese
• British
• Russian
• Discovery of Dunhuang grottoes, Turfan caves, Bamiyan
• Subsequent excavations at potential sites.
• Conservation of archaeological remains too carried out
• Findings were mostly taken back by the scholars to their own country
stripping Central Asia of its valuable remains

Sources
• Multi lingual and multi facetted
Literary
Inscriptions & Banners
Chinese imperial records
Accounts of Chinese travellers
Manuscripts: Niya, Bower, Gilgit
Archaeological
Architectural remains
Sculptural art
Paintings
Sites

Dissemination of Buddhism in Central Asia
• Buddhism in Central Asia has a long & complex history
• Dissemination of Buddhism in Central Asia took place in 3rd cent BCE
during reign of Ashoka
• Rock edict II,V, XIII: spread of dhamma in Yona country.
• Mahavamsa: Majjhantika sent to Kashmir & Gandhar and Maharakshita to
Yavan.
• Establishment of Kusana empire: domain included many parts of Central
Asia.

Factors for dissemination of Buddhism in Central Asia
Growing Trade
along silk
route
Translation of
Buddhist texts
into local
languages
Political
stability &
unity during
1st cent CE
Efforts of
Buddhist
missionaries

Silk Route & Central Asia
• Growing trade on Silk route
facilitated religious exchange in
Central Asia.
• Development of settlements
along silk route across Central
Asia.
• Linkages and connectivity
among culturally different
areas.
• Assimilation and diffusion of
cultures.
• Merchants as patrons of
Buddhism

Translations of Buddhist texts into local languages
• Use of Sanskrit as the literary language of Buddhism in Central Asia.
• Translations of Buddhist texts into vernacular languages to connect
with local population.
• Without these translation, Buddhism would not have made a lasting
impact on Central Asian culture.
• Multi lingual literature of Buddhism across central Asia.

Era of Kusana kings: Political stability & Unity
• With the establishment of Kusana empire, parts of Central Asia came
under a united domain.
• Buddhism came to prominence under the rule of Kusanas.
• Buddhist philosophy expanded to Central Asia due to political stability
during Kusana period which made travel and trade more convenient
within the region.
• Spread of Buddhism also facilitated by the royal patronage to
Buddhism?

Era of
Kusana
kings:
Contact
with west

Efforts of Buddhist missionaries
• Dissemination of Buddhist faith from heartlands of India to Central Asia
was the result of efforts of Buddhist monks.
• Monks were sent to different parts of Central Asia for the propagation of
Buddhist creed.
• They were responsible for teaching and preaching the hitherto alien doctrines
of Buddhism to natives of central Asia.
• Majjhantika, Dharamraksa, Kumarjiva to name a few.

Elements of Indian religions in culture of Central Asia
• Of all Indian religions, Buddhism exerted a greater influence in Central Asia.
• Introduction of Buddhism changed the whole cultural-religious-social landscape of
Central Asia
• Establishment of Buddhist creed led to the beginning of Buddhist art &
architecture in Central Asia.
• Development of Buddhist centres which were visited by foreign monks and
worshippers alike.
• Development of various sects of Buddhism.

Forms of Buddhism in Central Asia
• Overwhelming majority of Buddhist manuscripts of Buddhist canonical
literature belonging to various schools.
• A number of scholars identify three distinct major phases in the history
of Buddhism in Central Asia, which are associated with the following sects
chronologically
1.Dharmaguptakas
2.Sarvastivada
3.Mūlasarvāstivāda
4.Lokkouttarvada
5.Mahasanghika

Map of the major geographical centers of major
Buddhist schools in South Asia, at around the time of
Xuanzang's visit in the seventh century.
* Red: non-Pudgalavāda Sarvāstivāda school
* Orange: non-Dharmaguptaka Vibhajyavāda schools
* Yellow: Mahāsāṃghika
* Green: Pudgalavāda
* Gray: Dharmaguptaka
Note the red and grey schools already gave some
original ideas of Mahayana Buddhism and the Sri
Lankan section (see Tamrashatiya) of the orange
school is the origin of modern Theravada Buddhism

Dharmguptakas
• Originated from Mahasanghika sect around third/second cent BCE
• Dharamguptkas were probably the first Buddhist sect to gain hold in Central
Asia.
• A.K.Warder: They made more efforts than other sects for the spread of
Buddhism.
• Belief: Realization of four noble truths happens at once (like Thervada,
unlike Sarvastivada).
• For the earlier period of Chinese Buddhism, it was Dharamguptka sect who
were main and most influential school.
• In 5th cent CE, Dharamaguptkas texts were translated into Chinese indicating
their growing significance.

Dharmguptakas
• A.K.Warder: First Buddhist mission to Khotan was of Dharamguptkas.
• Gandhara Buddisht texts dedicated to a teacher of Dharamguptka school
attests to flourishing Dharamguptika school in North west India in 1cent CE.,
• Xuang Xang: In 7th cent CE, Dharamguptkas were located in Oddiyana (Swat
valley) and Central Asia but not in Indian Subcontinent.
• Yijing (7th cent CE): Three sub sects of Sarvastivaad- Mahasanghikas,
Dharamguptkas & Kashyapiya; were prevelant in Oddiyana, Khotana & Kuca.
• Yijing: In Eastern China, most people follow Dharamguptka Vinay while in
southern China most follow Sarvastivada Vinay.
• An edict of 8th cent CE Tang ruler mentions that samghas in China use only
Dharamguptka Vinay for ordination.

Sarvāstivādin
• One of the most influential group of Buddhism in Central Asia until 7th
cent CE
• Origin: Established around Ashoka’s regin in Mathura by Upagupta.
• Belief: He who affirms the existence of the dharmas of the three time
periods [past, present and future] is held to be a Sarvāstivādin
• Kashmir branch of this school composed Mahavibhasha shastra around
time of Kanishka.
• Copper plate inscription dated 134 year of Azes era(84 CE) from
Kalawana Taxila mentions Sarvāstivādin
• Xuang Zang: Many Sarvāstivādin monks residing in Kashgar
• Very popular sect in Kuca, Kashgar, Turfan, Balkh & Bamiyan.

Mūlasarvāstivādins
• A.K. Warder: Mūlasarvāstivādins were a later development of the
Sarvāstivāda.
• Yijing: It was an offshoot of Sarvāstivāda
• Belief: Concept of Universal Buddha. No Bhikkuni order.
• Probably developed in 2nd cent in India.
• Popular in Khotan.

Mahasanghika
• Mahasamghika was an early Buddhist school of thought which is thought to have been
formed after the Second Buddhist Council when it separated itself from another school,
the Sthaviravada over differences in monastic practices (known as Vinaya).
• Mahavastu: a celebrated text of this school
• Mahasanghikas moved to north west India after branching.
• First to attribute divinity to Buddha & represent him in anthropomorphic form.
• Some trace origins of Mahayana Buddhism in Mahasanghika sect.
• Lokottaravādin branch belongs to this very sect.

Lokottaravādi
• Accepted the words of Mahayana sutras.
• It is likely that the Lokottaravādins had no major doctrinal distinctions to
distinguish them as different from Mahāsāṃghika, but that the
difference was instead a geographic one
• Believe in super mundane Buddha.
• Special emphasis on worship of Maitreya.
• Pattimokha (Vibhaṅga of the Mahāsāṃghika- Lokottaravāda) recovered
from Bamiyan, Afghanistan.
• Xuang Xang (632 CE): It was predominant sect in Bamiyan at the time of
his visit.
• Bamiyan : Worship of Buddha as Super man as per Lokottaravādin
tradition.

Thervada/Mahayaan
• The name means 'the doctrine of the elders' - the elders being the senior
Buddhist monks.
• This school of Buddhism believes that it has remained closest to the
original teachings of the Buddha
• Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism share the same core
beliefs and devotion to the life and teaching of Buddha
• Theravada Buddhism is more conservative.
• In Theravada Buddhism the main Bodhisattva is Maitreya.
• Mahayana Buddhism suggests Boddhisatva’s delay their realisation to
stay in Samsara and help other struggling humans.
• Theravada suggests Bodhisattvas seek enlightenment first before they
can help others stuck in Samsara & emphasizes attaining self-liberation
through one's own efforts.

Thervada/Mahayan
• Many manuscripts to prove the prevalence of this school Central Asia.
• Popular in Afghanistan, Khotan
• Indo Greek king Menander accepted Thervaada Buddhism.
• Kanishka favoured Mahayan Buddhism.
• Manjushrimulakalpa: Kanishka presided over establishment of
Prajnaparmita doctrine of Mahayana sect in North western India.
• Xuang Xang: Flourishing in Bamiyaan in 7th cent CE
• Taranath: In north western India, 500 Bodhisattvas attended the council
which relates to institutionalised strength of Mahayana there .
• Dharamagupta: Mahayana was favoured by the King in 658 CE.

The cult of Maitreya
• Worship of Maitreya was followed equally by followers of mainstream and
Mahayan Buddhism.
• Maitreya called the first teacher of civilization.
• Book of Zambasta: A whole chapter dedicated to Maitreya wherein he is
called as first teacher of Universe. This alludes to the prevalence of cult of
Maitreya in Central Asia.
• Turfan caves: In honour of Bodhisattva Maitreya.
• Maitreyasamitinataka: Text from Kashgar dramatizing meeting of Maitreya
with future Buddha.
• Besides Maitreya, Amitabha was the most popular meditating Buddha in
Central Asia.

Merv: Turkmenistan
• Historical antiquity going back to Persian empire.
• Name appears in Behistun inscription of 515 BCE.
• Buddhism, Manichaeanism, Zoroasterism popular
• Stupas, monasteries, Buddhist manuscripts from 4th/5th cent CE.
• Buddha’s head moulded in clay
• Birch bark Sanskrit manuscripts in Brahmi telling about the first
female disciples of Buddha.
• Buddhist caves.

Afghanistan
Indus valley sites
Kapisha
Kandhar
Bamyan
Hadda
Jelalabad( Nagarahara)
Herat
Gandhar
Bactria (Balkha)

India & Afghanistan across time: Literary references
• Indus valley
• Battle of ten kings (Dashtrajna yuddha) wherein Alina tribe occupying modern
Kafirstan along with Bhalaanases (Bolan pass) & Pakthas (Pakhtoon) participated.
• A Rgvedic hymn referring to high quality of wool of Gandhara.
• Atharvaveda: Fever is invited to go over to the Gandharians.
• Aiterya Brahman: Kings of Nicyas & Apaeyas (NW) are called self rulers
• Nirukta: Mentions dialectic difference between Khambojas & the Aryas.
• Mahabharata: Gandhari, wife of Dritrashtra, was from Gandhar.
• Apstambha & Baudhyayan sutra: Impose ban against visiting Gandhara.
• Anguttar Nikaya: Gandhara & Kamboja as two of 16 Mahajanpadas.
• Maurya, Kusana, Indo Greek/Parthian/Scythian, Huna, Gazanavids, Hindu Shahi
kings, Mongols, Turks, Mugals etc in Afghanistan.
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh

History of archaeological investigations in Afghanistan
• 1819: Explorations by William Mooreroft : stupas in Afghanistan, colossi in
Bamiyan.
• 1831: Publication of account of Moorerfoft by H.H.Wilson.
• 1832: Alexander Burnes: Notices topes, caves in rocks and towers in Jelalabad
and Kabul.
• 1834-1837: Charles Burns discovered coin hoards, specimens of Gandhar art,
topes, relic caskets in Begram, Jelalabad & Kabul.
• 1839-42: First Afghan War
• 1878-80: Second Afghan war
• 1922: Afghan govt granted permission to France to conduct archaeological
investigations in Afghanistan for next 30 years.
• Afghanistan yielded her treasures which she so rigorously guarded within her
bosom for so many centuries.

Harappan sites in Afghanistan
• Shortunghai
• Mundigak

Bamyan, Afghanistan
• A merchant city visited by prominent monks and
worshippers
• 751 rock caves (4th -7th cent CE) used as
residence, meditation centres, storage rooms,
worshipping place.
• Square, octagonal, circular7 rectangular caves.
• Remains of monastic complex and colossal
Buddha statues.
• Remains of Paintings in 50 caves
• Aagamsutra, Mahayana sutra, Vinay,
Abhidhamm, Avadaan manuscripts dating
between 2nd-7th cent CE recovered from
Bamyan.

Bamyan, Afghanistan
• Xuang Zang visited Bamiyan in 632 CE.
• Predominant sect during the time of his visit was Lokottarvadi with strong Mahayan
characteristics.
• Xuang Zang observed that the people of Bamiyan were devoutly Buddhist.
• They not only followed the purest precepts but also lower forms of piety including worship
of minor spirits like Mihir, Yaksha & Naga.
• King of Bamiyan in a show of piety organised a mock sacrifice of his treasures at every
quinquennial assembly.
• Xuang Zang saw 2 colossal Buddha status here with royals in Tokharian costumes & kings
in Sasanian royal dress on either side.

Hadda
• Stupas & monastic complex excavated by Mason in 1834.
• Discovery of many small stupas & Sarvativadin manuscripts.
• Known for Greco-Buddhist style of Buddhist sculptures.
• Famous shrine of buddha’s skull bone
• Sarvastivadin manuscripts also recovered from Hadda.

Kandhar
• An important outpost of the Achaemenid empire in
the 6th century BCE
• Alexander laid the foundation of city Alexandria
here.
• Rock edict 13 of Ashoka (written in both Greek and
Aramaic) from Kandhar
• Mahavamsha: Menander sent Greek Buddhist monk
Mahadhramrakshita with 30,000 Buddhist monks
from the Greek city of Alasandra"
(possibly Alexandria in Kandhar to Sri Lanka for the
dedication of Buddhist temple in Anuradhapur

Kapisha= Kambhoja
• Included Begram,Kandhar & Bamiyan.
• Mahabharata mentions Kapisa in context of practise of
slave keeping there.
• Panini (5th cent BCE) refers to Kapisha.
• Ashoka sent Dhamma mahamatras to Kambhoja.
• Inscription bearing the name of a donor Satrap from
Kapisa.
• Arthshastra: refers to Kambhoja samgha.
• Xuang Zang: Ashoka built stupa in Kapisa:
uncorroborated.
• Xuang Zang : in Kapisa were over 6,000 monks of the
Mahayahna school in above 100 monasteries.
• Xuang Zang also reported some tens of ‘Deva’ temples
and above 1000 professed Pashupats wearing wreaths of
skull.
• Mitrasamputa sutra: Gandhara in list of places sanctified
by the presence of Bodhisattvas

Balkh
• Ruins of stupas and other antiquities brought to light by M.Foucher.
• Contained more than 100 monasteries with more than 3000 monks.
• It was famous for its Nava Vihar/ Nava Samgharama which was reputed to posses
the washing basin, a tooth and a broom of Buddha.
• U.N.Ghoshal: It enjoyed the reputation of being the greatest centre of Buddhist
learning to the north of Hindu Kush.
• Two stupas which legend relates to the time of Kashyapa Buddha.
• A pilgrim statement: Capital of Balkh was known as little Rajgriha after the capital
of Magadh bearing that name.

Conflict in Afghanistan
• Geographical Location: Prone to attacks
• History of seizes on Afghanistan
• The conflict in Afghanistan in last century began with a Communist coup in
1978, and worsened rapidly after Soviet troops intervened to save the
faltering Communist Government in December 1979.
• Taliban captured Afghanistan’s capital in April 1992. Armed with billions of
dollars of weapons by the United States, Saudi Arabia and other countries that
became part of the anti-Soviet coalition after 1979.
• But Talibans proved incapable of governing, or of overcoming deep ethnic
and religious differences, after the Communists surrendered power.
• A new civil war ensued
• December 2001: Taliban overthrown
• August 2021: Taliban 2.0 Fall of Kabul

Taliban and Heritage
in Afghanistan
• Tangibale + Intangible Heritage
• Bamyan: Demolished
• Kabul Museum: Looted,
Plundered
• Balkh: Mujahedeen
commanders used pickaxes,
bulldozers and even land mines
to ravage sites like Balkh.
• Folk singers-dancers-musicians
killed

Kabul Museum
• Brutal civil war in the early 1990s: Museum was looted numerous times resulting in a loss of 70%
of the 100,000 objects on display.
• This wasn't just a case of mujahedeen running through the museum and filling their pockets
• This was much more systematic, and it went on for a very long time.
• The people who did this, and the people for whom they were doing it, knew exactly what they
were after.
• In 17 years of war after the 1989 Soviet withdrawal, and five years of Taliban rule, most of the
Afghan national museum's riches were looted and some were deliberately destroyed.
• In May 12, 1993, a rocket slammed into the the museum's roof, destroying a fourth-century CE
wall painting from northern Afghanistan and burying much of the museum's ancient pottery and
bronzes under tons of debris.
• In March 1994, the museum, which had been used as a military base, was struck by rocket fire
and largely destroyed.
• While the looters have scattered much of the museum's collection, one part of it that they were
denied was the so-called Tillya-Tepe collection of 21,000 Bactrian gold objects, unearthed by
Russian archeologists in northern Afghanistan in 1978.
• In February and March 2001, the Taliban destroyed countless pieces of art.
• Taliban had destroyed at least 2,750 ancient works of art during the year.

People Institutions/Media Countries
Britain, USA, India,
France, Germany etc
Safeguarding the Afghan Heritage

Safeguarding the Afghan Heritage
• The legendary Bactrian gold - which experts feared had been stolen/ melted down - had in fact been packed up, along
with a number of key objects from the collection, and moved to a Central Bank vault in the Presidential Palace in 1989.
• Mr Massoudi was one of five men who had keys to the vault. All five keys were needed to open it - and each of the men
risked their lives not to hand them over to the militants.
• The holders of the keys kept their locations secret - if a key holder died, it was agreed, the key would be passed on to the
keeper's eldest child. In that way, the priceless artefacts were preserved.
• Efforts of Nancy Hatch Dupree: Agency Coordinating Body for Afghan Relief (ACBAR)/Afghan Center at Kabul University
• Support of UNESCO: UNESCO authorized archaeologists and engineers to consolidate the two niches, with props and
grouting. But nothing else.
• The Afghan Digital Repository: World largest digital collections related to Afghanistan and its related regions
• Universities and Archaeological departments all over the world.
• Media: Coverage of Threat-Damage-Conservation

The Afghanistan Digital Library has been undertaken with the generous support of:
The National Endowment for the Humanities
The Reed Foundation
The W.L.S. Spencer Foundation
The Gladys Brooks Foundation

Restoring One of two niches in Bamiyan, Afghanistan, Feb. 18, 2014

A 3D light projection on May 20, 2019, in Bamiyan, Afghanistan, of how a destroyed Buddha,
might have looked in its prime.

Restoration dispute
• Subsequent efforts made to restore and reconstruct the Buddhas in their
niches with the pieces available.
• The question has become a heated discussion.
• One of the prime concerns raised is about the need to rebuild Buddhist
statues in an Islamic country, which no longer has the same sense of
syncretism as during the Kushan Empire.
• Others have pointed out that the empty niches must be kept as they are, as
a reminder of the fanatic acts that led to the destruction of the statues.

Taxila
• Location: Gandhar
• Oldest amongst Indian universities.
• Reputed centre of learning.
• Intellectual capital of India
• Melting pot of various cultures
• Well known centre of education as early
as in 7th cent BCE.
• Numerous references show that
students in hundreds used to flock this
city from distant places like Banaras,
Rajgriha, Mithila, Ujjain, Kosala, Madhya
Desa and Kuru.

Taxila
• UNESCO world heritage site.
• Discovered by Alexander Cunningham.
• Ruins of 4 major cities at different times:
Excavations by Marshall
• Remains of stupas, monasteries, stone &
stucco sculptures, terracotta figurines.
• Centre of education. Buddhism also
taught here.
• Fa Xian: 4 topes visited by Kings.

Courses taught at Taxila
Scientific
Literary
Technical
• Multidisciplinary approach
• Religious & vocational education
• Vedas & Shilpa

• Religious studies: Vedas
• Supplementary texts
• The study of these
auxiliary sciences was
necessary to precede the
comprehension of the
meaning of Vedas

Secular subjects
• 18 Shilpas : indicating a craft or vocation
based on practical skill as contrasted with
religious and literary subjects.
• Law, Mathematics, Accountancy,
Agriculture, Commerce, Cattle breeding,
Smithy, Carpentry, Medicine, Surgery,
Archery and allied military arts,
Astronomy, Astrology, Divination, Magic,
Snake charming, Art of finding hidden
treasures, Music, Dancing and Painting.

Important alumina of Taxila University
• Jatakas: Jivaka the physician
• Panini the grammarian
• Chanakya the policy maker
• Mahavagga: Prasenjit the king

Gandhara
• Ancient Gandhāra = Peshawar valley corresponding to
present-day north-west Pakistan and east Afghanistan.
• Peshawar, Taxila, Pushkalavati (Charsada)
• Cultural melting pot: A noted center of learning.
• Gateway for spread of Buddhism in Central Asia.
• U.N.Ghoshal: Considered as second holy land for
pilgrims
• Gandhara missionaries influential in bringing Buddhism
to China during Han dynasty (3 rd cent CE).
• Produced 2 great scholars of Mahayana Buddhism-
Asnag & Vasubandhu.
• Buddhism Introduced in reign of Ashoka who sent his
missionaries here.

Gandhar
• Fa Xian: Son of Ashoka ruled Gandhara. Mostly Hinayani. Flourishing
Buddhist convents.
• Buddhist legend: Buddha was once born as Bodhisattva here.
• Mitrasamputa sutra: Gandhara in list of places s sanctified by the presence
of Bodhisattvas
• Xuang Zang: 6 stupas were made here by Ashoka?
• Indo Greek king Menander
• Important Buddhist center of art during Kusana period.
• Cult of Maiterya popular: Abundance of his images from Gandhara.
• Schools: Kashyapa, Dharamguptkas, Sarvastivaada, Mahasanghika.
• Vajrayana in Gilgit & Swat valley.
• Presence of non Buddhist faiths also in Gandhar.
• Kharoshthi inscription of reign of Kadphises II: gift of money to temple of
Shaiv cult
• Mihirkula destroyed Buddhist shrines in Gandhara.

• Broad range of subject matter
• Reveals depths-breadths of religious attitudes.
• Creation of image of Buddha.
• Indra-Shakra accompanying Buddha.
• Panchik = Kuber
• Vajrapani.
• Devas & Gandharas
• Events from life of Buddha eg Maar Vijiay
Gandhar art

(Purushpur)Peshawar ?
• Winter capital of Kusanas.
• Fa Xian: Topes and temples of majestic grandeur. 700 monks. Stupa built by
Kanishka.
• Many monasteries in Peshawar valley.
• Around 260 CE, the armies of the Sasanid Emperor Shapur I launched an attack
against Peshawar and severely damage Buddhist monuments and monasteries
throughout the Valley of Peshawar.
• The White Huns ravaged the entire region of Gandhara, destroying its numerous
monasteries. The Kanishka stupa was rebuilt during the White Hun era
• Xuanzang: Visited ancient Peshawar around 630 CE expressed lament that the city
and its great Buddhist monuments had decayed to ruin although some monks
studying Hinayana Buddhism continued to study at the monastery's ruins

Pushkalavati
• Capital of the Gandhara kingdom in ancient India.
• Its ruins are located on the outskirts of the
modern city of Charsadda, in Charsadda District,
in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, 28 km northeast of
Peshawar.
• Xuanzang : Visited in 630 CE. King Ashoka built a
stupa here (which to this day remains unidentified
and undiscovered)

Shah-Ji-ki-Dheri
• 6 kilometers from Peshawar, Pakistan.
• David Brainard Spooner conducted
excavations there in 1908-09
• Kanishka stupa dated to the 2nd
century CE.
• Discovery of the Kanishka casket

Takht-i-Bahi
• Indo-Parthian archaeological site of an ancient Buddhist monastery complex
in Mardan, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
• The monastery was founded in the 1st century CE and was in use until the 7th
century.
• Owing to its location on the crest of a high hill, it escaped successive invasions
and is still exceptionally well preserved.
• Nearby are the ruins of Sahr-i-Bahlol, a small fortified city dating from the
same period
• Listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980.
• AdditToday the ruins comprise a main stupa court, votive stupas court, a
group of three stupas, the monastic quadrangle with meditation cells,
conference hall, covered stepped passageways and other secular buildings.

Jaulian monastery
• Buddhist monastery dating from the 2nd century CE located
in Haripur District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province near the
provincial border with Punjab and the city of Taxila.
• Jaulian, along with the nearby monastery at Mohra
Muradu, form part of the Ruins of Taxila – a collection of
excavations that were inscribed as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site in 1980

Uzbekistan
• Historical antiquity going back to Persian empire
• Manichaeanism popular during Sassian period.
• Buddhism entered with Kusanas.
• Murals showing influence of Hinduism.
• Buddhist monasteries, stupas, murals at Fayaz Tepe dating before 4th cent CE.
• Rock cut caves at Kara Tepe dated between 1st to 3rd cent CE= imperial support to
Buddhism.
• The wall paintings at Panjikent depict various goddesses & religious scenes, some even
showing influences of Hinduism

Buddhism in Uzbekistan
• Xuanzang passed through Samarkand in the early 630s and recorded about it.
• Although Xuanzang claimed some success in preaching Buddhism, there were
apparently only two Buddhist temples left in the city at that time.
• Xuanzang's biographer reports that during the monk's visit in 631, Zoroastrian
priests chased two of his Buddhist followers.
• The Chinese pilgrims mention existence of hundreds of Buddhist monasteries
and stupas throughout Uzbekistan.
• Soghdians were among the translators of Buddhist scriptures in China,
presumably because they had linguistic skills honed by life at the crossroads
of major trade routes connecting China with India via Central Asia.
• Xuanzang : There are about ten sangharamas with about one thousand
monks in Termez. The stupas and the images of the honored Buddha are
noted for various spiritual manifestations.

Fayaz Tepe: Model of the Stupa and monastery

Panjikent
• Shiva with Trisula.
Penjikent 7th–8th century
CE

Indian scripts in Uzbekistan
• Inscriptions in Kharosthi.
• Hinüber, Oskar von (1980). A
Brahmi-inscription from Kara-
Tepe

Xinxiang region, China
• In 2nd cent CE, Eastern
han Dynasty made
Buddhism, its national
religion.
• Four Buddhist cultural
centres.
• Kashgar
• Kuca
• Turfan
• Khotan

Kashgar
• Meeting point of norther & southern routes skirting
Takalamakan desert
• One of the four major Buddhist centers in Xinjian region of
China
• 5 stupas, monasteries dated to 1st cent CE/2nd cent CE
• Xuang Zang visited in 644 CE
• Wu Kong visited in 786 CE
• Vairochan from Kashmir spread Buddhism in Kashgar in 1st
cent CE
• Initially, Buddhism not a popular faith due to limitation of
language & absence of texts.
• Co existed with nature worship & Shamanism
• Reached its peak in 7th cent CE
• Hinayana form popular in Kashgar.
• Reference to construction of Buddhist temples & perforfance
of Buddhist ceremonies.
• Sites: Mohr Pagoda, Buddhist caves, Frescos, Three immortal
caves.

Turfan
• Manuscripts in 16 languages, 25 scripts=cosmopolitan nature of Turfan
• Buddhist activities in Turfan between 5th to 14th cent CE.
• Rulers converted to Islam in 14th cent CE.
• Bezeklik caves: 77 rock cut caves & murals dug into fragile cliffs.
• Steles erected by royal families of Turfan to commemorate completion of Buddhist
caves: Royal patronage
• But donors included lay patrons & monks as well.
• 580 banners as votive offering recovered.
• Mahayana Buddhist themes
• Toyok caves: oldest Buddhist caves, royal patronage
• Astana graves: epitaph from a grave dated 667 CE-List of Buddhist texts copied by
a female & her contributions towards support of 300 monks
• Kocho & Yarkhoto monasteries built by locals.
• Turfan murals: Buddhist themes.

Kuche/Kuqa/Quici
• Large number of Buddhist caves & monasteries in vicinity of Kuche
• Buddhism during 1st cent to 11th cent CE
• Book of Jin (3rd cent CE): 1000 stupas in Kucha.
• Buddhism introduced in 1st cent CE but became popular in 4th cent CE.
• Introduction by Kumarjiva.
• Buddhist manuscripts in Tocharian , Buddhist texts translated iin Chinese recovered.
• Xuang Zang visited in 630 CE: 100 Buddhist convents with 5000 disciples of Sarvastivada.
• Kyzil caves: 236 caves (4th to 7th cent CE)murals, jataka scenes, celestial biengs, arhat,
bodhisattvas, Colossal Buddha sculptures.
• Kizilgaha caves (5th cent CE): stupas, monasteries, murals, relic caskets, Buddha
sculptures.
• Kumtura caves: 112 caves (5th to 11th cent CE),murals.
• Subachi monastery: 6th/7th cent CE stupas, relic caskets, mummies, wooden/clay
sculptures.

Khotan
• Great center of Mahayana studies in the early third century A. D.
• Buddhism entered Khotan during the reign of King Vijitasambhava,
grandson of Kustana who was the son of Asoka.
• Instead of coming to India many Chinese pilgrims stayed in Khotan for their
Buddhist studies.
• Chu-shin-Hsung, a Chinese Buddhist monk, came to Khotan in about 260
CE
• Fa Xiang (480 CE): All inhabitants profess Buddhist law & join together in
religious ceremonies. Monks are students of Mahayana Buddhism. Many
monasteries. He stayed at Gomati Vihar=premier institute of Buddhist
learning with 3000 resident monks.

Khotan
• Xuang-Zang visited Khotan in 644 CE: 100 monasteries
with some 500 monks who were adherents of
Mahayana Buddhism.The people were devout
Buddhists and supported the Sangha with their
magnificient gifts.
• Literature mentions names of atleast 10 monasteries
in Khotan.
• Excavations at Yotkan, Rawak, Akterek, Vairochan’s
monastry etc.
• Manjushri cult, cult of cosmic Vairochan also popular
in Khotan

Decline of Buddhism in Central Asia
Buddhist artistic and literary traditions continued to flourish in Central Asia along with
Zoroastrian, Manichaean, and Nestorian Christian traditions in the middle to late 1st
millennium C.E.
With the exceptions of the surviving Buddhist traditions in Tibet and Mongolia,
Buddhism disappeared from the Silk Road regions of Central Asia in the 2nd
millennium C.E.

Elements of Brahmanical Religion In Central Asia
• Shiva.
• Vishnu
• Ganesh
• Kartikeya
• Brahma
• Indra
• Mihir
• Dikpala
• Other minor deities Mihir, Yaksha & Naaga
• Mythological heroes: Dashrath, Rama, Lakshman, Sita, Parashurama,
Bhima, Arjuna- names occurring on Kharosthi tablets.

Shah-Ji-ki-Dheri: Statue of Kubera and Hariti. Pañcika and Hariti, Takht-i-Bahi

Elements of Vaishnavism in Central Asia
• Vaishvanism came to be known in Central Asia quite early.
• Heliodoros Pillar Inscription: Donor from court of king of Taxila. 2nd / 1st cent BCE
• Images of Kṛiṣṇa and Saṃkarṣana on the drachm minted by Agathocles of Bactria, who ruled Gandhāra-
Taxila
• Zenob’s story: Krisna’s legend in Armenia. Two Indian chiefs whose sons erected their temples. 2nd / 1st
cent BCE
• Tadjikistan Inscription: Cult of Narayan. 2nd / 1st cent BCE
• Seal of the fourth-fifth century CE with a four-armed Viṣhṇu to whom a ruler in Central-Asian dress and
half his size pays homage
• Tun-huang painting: Narayana on Garuda as attendant of Avalokiteshwar.
• Nicolo seal: Four armed Vishnu with a devotee. Inscription mentioning names of Mihira, Vishnu , Shiva.
500 CE.
• Domko region: Vishwaroopa Buddha image from Balawaste modelled after Vishnu Vishwaroopa.
• Xuang zang: People at Bamiyan not only followed the purest precepts but also lower forms of piety
including worship of minor spirits like Mihir, Yaksha & Naaga
• Pastured Cow by
• Kikil Caves: Krishna, Kalidasa’s Raghuvansham and Dancing pose of Rani Chandra Prabha have been found.

Elements of Shaivism in Central Asia
• Shaivism more popular than Vaishnavism.
• Some features amalgamated with Buddhism.
• Shiva appearing on coins of Kusanas as Maheshwar.
• Afghanistan: Head of Durga Mahishmardini (7th/ 8th cent CE)
• Kabul: Inscribed Mahavinayaka clad in tiger skin.
• Turkmenistan: Wall painting of Shiva, Trimurti Shiva with third eye.
• Uzbekistan: Shiva with Trisula. Penjikent 7th–8th century CE
• Taklamakan desert: Representation of Shiva with Nandi on a painted wooden
panel; Trimutri Shiva with Shakti.
• Khotan: Ganesh on bronze tablets & wooden panels
• Turfan: Kartikeya seated on a bird

Conclusion
• The transmission of elements of Indian religions to Central Asia corresponded with the
development of the silk routes as channels for intercultural exchanges.
• Kusana hegemony further strengthened these inter religion exchanges by bringing
extensive areas under their soverignity.
• Foreign monks who travelled along the silk routes were responsible for the transmission
of Buddhism at sub-elite levels.
• Buddhism held a greater sway in Central Asia as compared to other Indian religions.
• Buddhist literature was both translated & written in Central Asian vernacular languages.
• None of the Central Asian forms of Buddhism succeeded in establishing an important
indigenous literary tradition based on the received canonical literature
• Stupas, cave paintings, and manuscripts reflect the movement of Buddhism across Central
Asia on the silk routes.
• They also display close stylistic & thematic affinities between Central Asia & India.

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