The document summarizes the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. It discusses that carbohydrates are digested by enzymes in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine into monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose which are then absorbed. Glucose absorption occurs via active transport using sodium-glucose transporters, while fructose absorption is via facilitated diffusion. Factors like hormones, vitamins, and genetic disorders can influence the rate of absorption. Lactose intolerance occurs when there is a deficiency of the enzyme lactase, preventing the digestion of lactose in milk.
Glycogen is the storage from of glucose. The metabolism of glycogen both as glycogenolysis, breakdown of glycogen, and glycogenesis, formation of glycogen along with their regulation is briefed in the slides.
Gluconeogenesis- Steps, Regulation and clinical significanceNamrata Chhabra
Gluconeogenesis- Thermodynamic barriers, substrates of gluconeogenesis, reciprocal regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, biological and clinical significance
This powerpoint gives detailed description and clear view about Glycogenesis and glycogenolysis . these two metabolic actions are very important for regulating blood glucose levels. it also explains about the glycogen storage
Glycogenolysis, process by which glycogen, the primary carbohydrate stored in the liver and muscle cells of animals, is broken down into glucose to provide immediate energy and to maintain blood glucose levels during fasting. These slides will provide you detail explanation of Glycogenolysis.
Glycogen is the storage from of glucose. The metabolism of glycogen both as glycogenolysis, breakdown of glycogen, and glycogenesis, formation of glycogen along with their regulation is briefed in the slides.
Gluconeogenesis- Steps, Regulation and clinical significanceNamrata Chhabra
Gluconeogenesis- Thermodynamic barriers, substrates of gluconeogenesis, reciprocal regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, biological and clinical significance
This powerpoint gives detailed description and clear view about Glycogenesis and glycogenolysis . these two metabolic actions are very important for regulating blood glucose levels. it also explains about the glycogen storage
Glycogenolysis, process by which glycogen, the primary carbohydrate stored in the liver and muscle cells of animals, is broken down into glucose to provide immediate energy and to maintain blood glucose levels during fasting. These slides will provide you detail explanation of Glycogenolysis.
This lecture talking about; Digestion hydrolysis of large and complex organic molecules of foodstuffs into smaller and preferably water-soluble molecules which can be easily absorbed by the GIT.
Digestion & absorption of carbohydrate.pptxABHIJIT BHOYAR
The goal of carbohydrate digestion is to break down all disaccharides and complex carbohydrates into monosaccharides for absorption, although not all are completely absorbed in the small intestine (e.g., fiber). Digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase released during the process of chewing.
Carbohydrates (also called carbs) are a type of macronutrient found in certain foods and drinks. Sugars, starches and fiber are carbohydrates. Other macronutrients include fat and protein. Your body needs these macronutrients to stay healthy.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
2. Digestion is a process involving the hydrolysis of large
and complex organic molecules of foodstuffs into smaller
and preferably water-soluble molecules which can be
easily absorbed by the GIT for utilization by the organism
Digestion of macromolecules also promotes the
absorption of fat soluble vitamins and certain minerals
3. The principal dietary carbohydrates are polysaccharides
(starch, glycogen) disaccharides (lactose, sucrose) &
monosaccharides (glucose, fructose)
The digestion of carbohydrates occurs in the mouth &
intestine
The hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds is carried out by a group
of enzymes called glycosidases
8. Digestion in mouth:
Saliva contains carbohydrate splitting enzyme salivary
amylase (ptyalin)
Action of salivary amylase (ptyalin):
It is α – amylase, requires Cl- ions for activation & optimum
pH 6.7 (6.6 to 6.8)
Salivary amylase hydrolyses α 1-4 glycosidic bonds of
polysaccharides, producing smaller molecules maltose,
glucose & trisaccharide, maltotriose
9. Salivary amylase action stops in stomach when pH falls to 3.0
Digestion in stomach:
No carbohydrate splitting enzyme in gastric juice
Some dietary sucrose may be hydrolysed to equimolar
amounts of glucose & fructose by HCL
Digestion in duodenum:
Food bolus in duodenum mixes with pancreatic juice
Pancreatic juice contains pancreatic amylase, similar to
salivary amylase
10. Action of pancreatic amylase:
It is an α-amylase, optimum pH 7.1, requires Cl- ions
It specifically hydrolyzes α1-4 glycosidic bonds & not on
a1-6 bonds
It produces disaccharides (maltose, isomaltose) &
oligosaccharides
The final digestion of di- & oligosaccharides to
monosaccharides primarily occurs at the mucosal lining
of the upper jejunum
11. Carried out by oligosaccharidases (e.g. glucoamylase acting
on amylose) and disaccharidases (e.g. maltase, sucrase,
lactase)
Digestion in small intestine:
Action of intestinal juice:
Intestinal amylase: It hydrolyses terminal a 1-4-glycosidic
bonds in polysaccharides & oligosaccharides, liberating free
glucose
Lactase: It is β-galactosidase, its pH range 5.4 to 6.0
Lactose is hydrolysed to glucose & galactose
12.
13.
14. Absorption of carbohydrates
The principal monosaccharides produced by the digestion
of carbohydrates are glucose, fructose and galactose
Glucose accounts for 80% of the total monosaccharides
The absorption occurs mostly in the duodenum & upper
jejunum of small intestine
Only monosaccharides are absorbed by the intestine
Absorption rate is maximum for galactose; moderate for
glucose; and minimum for fructose
15. Absorption rates
Cori study:
He studies the rate of absorption of different sugars from
small intestine in rat
Glucose absorption as 100, comparative absorption of other
sugars as
Galactose=110, Glucose=100, Fructose=43, Mannoase=19,
Xylose=15 & Arabinose=9
Galactose is absorbed more rapidly than glucose
Pentoses are absorbed slowly
16. Mechanism of absorption
Different sugars possess different mechanisms for
their absorption
Glucose is transported into the intestinal mucosal cells
by a carrier mediated and energy requiring process
17. Monosaccharides, the end products of carbohydrate
digestion, enter the capillaries of the intestinal villi
In the liver,
galactose &
fructose are
converted to
glucose.
Small intestine
Monosaccharides travel to
the liver via the portal vein.
18. Active transport mechanism
Glucose and Na+ share the same transport system (symport)
referred to as sodium dependent glucose transporter
The concentration of Na+ is higher in the intestinal lumen
compared to mucosal cells
Na+ moves into the cells along its concentration gradient &
simultaneously glucose is transported into the intestinal cells
Mediated by the same carrier system
19. Na+ diffuses into the cell and it drags glucose along with it
The intestinal Na+ gradient is the immediate energy source
for glucose transport
This energy is indirectly supplied by ATP since the re-entry of
Na+ (against the concentration gradient) into the intestinal
lumen is an energy requiring active process
The enzyme Na+-K+ ATPase is involved in the transport of
Na+ in exchange of K+ against the concentration gradient
20. SGluT: Sodium and glucose co-transport system at
luminal side; sodium is then pumped out
21. Oral rehydration therapy (ORT):
ORT is common treatment of diarrhoea
Oral rehydration fluid contains glucose & sodium
Intestinal absorption of sodium is facilitated by the
presence of glucose
Mechanism of absorption of galactose is similar to that of
glucose
Phlorozin blocks the Na+ dependent transport of glucose &
galactose
22. Glucose transporters
Glucose transporters GluT-1 to 7 have been described in
various tissues
GluT-2 & GluT-4 are very important
GluT-2:
Operates in intestinal epithelial cells
It is a uniport system & not dependent on Na+ ions
Glucose is held on GluT-2, by weak hydrogen bonds
After fixing glucose, changes configuration & opens inner
side releasing glucose
23. GluT-4:
Operates in the muscle & adipose tissue
GluT-4 is under control of insulin
Insulin induces the intracellular GluT-4 molecules to move
to the cell membrane & increases the uptake
Other “GluT” molecules are not under control of insulin
GluT-1 is present in RBCs & brain
Also present in retina, colon, placenta
It helps in glucose uptake in most of these tissues which
is independent of insulin
24. Glucose transporters
Transporter Present in Properties
GluT1
RBC, brain, kidney, colon,
retina, placenta
Glucose uptake in most of cells
GluT2
Surface of intestinal cells, liver,
β-cells of pancreas
Low affinity; glucose uptake in liver;
glucose sensor in β-cells
GluT3
Neurons, brain High affinity; glucose into brain cells
GluT4
Skeletal, heart muscle,
adipose tissue
Insulin mediated glucose uptake
GluT5
Small intestine, testis,
sperms, kidney
Fructose transporter; poor ability to
transport glucose
GluT7 Liver endoplasmic reticulum Glucose from ER to cytoplasm
SGluT Intestine, kidney Cotransport; from lumen into cell
25. Absorption of fructose:
Fructose absorption is simple
Does not require energy and Na+ ions
Transported by facilitated diffusion mediated by a carrier
Inside the epithelial cell, most of the fructose is converted
to glucose
The latter then enters the circulation
Pentoses are absorbed by a process of simple diffusion
26. Factors influencing rate of absorption
Mucus membrane:
Mucus membrane is not healthy, absorption will decrease
Thyroid hormones:
Increases absorption of hexoses & act on intestinal mucosa
Adrenal cortex: Absorption decreases in adrenocortical
deficiency, mainly due to decreased concentration of sodium
Anterior pituitary: It affects mainly through thyroid hormones
27. Insulin:
It has no effect on absorption of glucose
Vitamins:
Absorption is decreased in B-complex vitamins
deficiency-thiamine, pyridoxine, pantothenic acid
Inherited deficiency of sucrase & lactase enzymes
interfere with corresponding disaccharide absorption
28. Abnormalities of carbohydrate digestions
Defect in disaccharidases results in the passage of undigested
disaccharides into the large intestine
The disaccharides draw water from the intestinal mucosa by
osmosis and cause osmotic diarrhoea
Bacterial action of these undigested carbohydrates leads to
flatulence
Flatulence is characterized by increased intestinal motility,
cramps and irritation
29. The carbohydrates (di, oligo and polysaccharides) not
hydrolysed by α-amylase
The di & oligosaccharides can be degraded by the bacteria
present in ileum to liberate monosaccharides
During the course of utilization of monosaccharides by the
intestinal bacteria, the gases such as hydrogen, methane &
carbon dioxide-besides lactate and short chain fatty acids
are released & causes flatulence
30. Lactose intolerance
lactase (β-galactosidase) deficiency is the most common
disaccharidase deficiency in humans
lt is estimated that more than half of the world's adult
population is affected by lactose intolerance
Some infants may have deficiency of lactase & they show
intolerance to lactose, the milk sugar
Symptoms:
Diarrhoea, flatulence, abdominal cramps
31. Discussion:
Lactose of milk cannot be hydrolysed due to deficiency of
lactase
Accumulation of lactose in intestinal tract, which is
“osmotically active” & holds water, producing diarrhoea.
Accumulated lactose is also fermented by intestinal
bacteria which produce gas & other products, producing
flatulence & abdominal pain