Business Research Methods BBA

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS
BB5
CLASS ROOM DISCUSSIONS
By
MUJEEB RAHIMAN KATTALI
ASST.PROF IN COMMERCE &
MANAGEMENT STUDIES,
SIAS-VAZHAYOOR

Module I
FEATURES OF RESEARCH
 It is gathering of new knowledge from primary and secondary
sources.
 It is an expert, systematic and accurate investigation.
 It is logical and objective.
 It attempts to organize data in quantitative terms.
 It is not an easy task need hard work and patience.
 The researcher free from prejudice and bias and also free from
consequences of his findings.
 It deals with a problem which demands a solution.
 It involves a set of hypotheses concerning the tentative conclusions
of the solutions of a problem.
 It is carefully reported.

Objectives
 Decision making objectives
 Project objectives
 Policy objectives
 Controlling objectives
 Economic and business environmental objectives
 Market objectives
 Product Development objectives
 Innovation objectives
 Customer satisfaction objectives
 Profit objectives
 Promotional objectives and
 Corporate image objectives.

THEORY BUILDING
• The process of building a statement of
concepts and their interrelationship that
shows how and why a phenomenon occurs.
Eg: inductive and deductive theory.
• Theory building mainly purpose for prediction
and understanding.
• Simply theory building is a coherent set of
general proposition used as principles of
explanation of the apparent relationships of
certain observed phenomena.

INDUCTION THEORY
• The logical process of establishing a general
proposition on the basis of observation of
particular facts. (particular to general)
• Eg, Coconut leaf’s colour is green,
Curry leaves colour is green ,
So all leave’s colours are green.
• Using inductive theory building one starts with a
specific observation as the basis for which we
develop a general pattern and tentative
hypothesis as the foundation of theory

INDUCTION THEORY
PATTERN
OBSERVATION
TENTATIVE HYPOTHESIS
THEORY

DEDUCTION THEORY
• The logical process of deriving a conclusion from a known
premise or something known to be true.
• Eg.,All managers are human being
Azim premji is a manager
So, we can deduce that Azim premji is a human being.
• Using deductive theory building one starts with a given theory
as the basis for which we develop hypothesis from general to
specific.
• Simply deductive theory is general to particular.

DEDUCTION THEORY
HYPOTHESIS
THEORY
OBSERVATION
CONFIRMATION

RESEARCH PROCESS
The various steps that are necessary to carry out a research
efficiency are known as research process. It consist of…
1. Formulating research problem
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Writing a primary synopsis
4. Identifying and labeling variables
5. Developing the hypothesis
6. Preparing the research design
7. Determining sample design
8. Collecting the data
9. Execution of the project
10. Processing and analyzing of data
11. Testing of hypothesis
12. Preparation of research report

Identifying, evaluating and formulating the research
problem
A researcher identifies, evaluate and formulate a
correct problem on the basis of
(1) Researcher’s familiarity and experience in the
field of study,
(2) Guidance from colleagues
(3) Personal interest and aptitude
(4) Availability of data and other information
Extensive Literature survey
Researcher examine all available literature both
conceptual and empirical.
Conceptual- concepts and theories
Empirical- facts and figure observed in the earlier
studies

 Writing a primary synopsis
 A research worker has to write a synopsis of the topic
selected for research work mentioning the summary of what
is going to be done under his research.
 Identifying and labeling variables
 Identifying and labeling dependent variable and
independent variable. Independent variable is the cause and
dependent variable is the effect. Eg. Achievement and
Intelligence.
 Setting up of hypothesis
 A hypothesis is a tentative conclusion of logically drawn. A
hypothesis provides the focal point for research. The
hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the scope
of the research work.

 Preparing the research design
 A research design is a plan that specifies the sources and
types of information relevant to the research problem.
 It contains (a) clear statement of research problem (b)
procedure and techniques to be used for gathering
information (c) population to be studied (d) methods to be
used in processing and analyzing data.
 Determining the sample design
 Select a sample from the universe (population) and make
studies about the universe through this sample.
 Sample design refers to the techniques or the procedure
which the researcher would adopt in selecting some
sampling units from the universe for drawing inferences
about the universe.

 Collection of data
 Data collecting through the sources of primary and secondary
 Methods of collecting primary data are (a) observation, (b)
personal interview, (c) telephone interview, (d) questionnaire
,(e)schedule, etc. The secondary sources mean published work,
books, reports, journals, newspaper, magazines, etc.
 Execution of the project
 The researcher has to execute the project in a systematic and in
time.
 Processing, Analysis and interpretation of data by statistical
methods.
 Processing of data consists of classification, tabulation and
coding.
 Analysis and interpretation of data through various statistical
methods and techniques such as, Average, Co efficient of
correlation and dispersion, etc.

 Testing hypothesis
 For testing the hypothesis we are using number of statistical
tests such as‘t’ test, ‘F’ test, test. The testing result in
either accepting or rejecting the hypothesis.
 Preparation of report or thesis
 Finally the researcher prepares the report or the outcome.
 A report is a detailed description of what has been done and
how it has been done with respect to a particular area or
topic.
 The reports contains, introduction, review of related
literature, methodology, data analysis and interpretation,
findings and conclusion, etc. then Bibliography and Appendix

CONCEPT
• A concept is a symbolises of a phenomenon.
• Concepts symbolise the empirical relationship and
phenomena which are indicated by facts. For
instance Labour is a concept.
• The aim of concepts is to study, organise,
manipulate and isolate the properties of objects.
• A concept is two categories (1)postulational
concepts and (2) intuitive concepts. Under
postulational concepts , theory meaning will be
different in different context.But in intuitive
concepts has a particular meaning and never
changed based on different context.

Features of Concepts
• Concepts are relative to the environment.
• Concepts have history.
• Concepts are public property.
• Concepts acquire content from experience.
• Concepts are abstract representation of
human phenomena.
• Concepts should be precise, comprehensive
and clear.

Operational Definition
• Operational definition is a qualification of a
normal definition.
• Definition specifies the operation which
observe, measure and record the phenomenon
symbolised by the concept.
• These criteria should be so objective that any
competent observer can secure the same results
by using the definition.
• The operational definition is adequacy and
precision of meaning.

Variable
• A quantity which can assume a range of
numerical values is known as variable.
• A variable is concept which can take different
quantitative values.
• A variable is a varying concept.
• The word variable may also refer to an event or
process that can be changed or can change on
its own accord.
• The variable are categorised in to independent,
dependent, extraneous, intervening,
dichotomous, quantitative & qualitative,
observable & dummy, exploratory & criterion
etc.

Proposition
Proposition generally termed as hypothesis.
It is tentative conclusion formulated for empirical
testing.
A proposition , generally means a mere assumptions or
suppositions to be proved or disproved. For eg, when
the sales turnover of an organisation declining , a
researcher formulates the proposition that the main
reasons for the sales declining is low quality product.
When this proposition is tested by collecting
information and applying suitable methods the
proposition stands either accepted or rejected.
If the hypothesis is accepted the idea or belief through
the hypothesis becomes fact.

Hypothesis
It is usually considered as the principal instrument in
research.
It provides direction to research.
It defines what is relevant and what is irrelevant.
It specifies difference between fruitful and fruitless
research.
It guides to the process of discovery.
It enables the investigator to understand, with clarity, his
problems, and to select procedures and methods to be used
for solving problems.
It serves as a frame work for drawing conclusions.
An Hypothesis formulation comprising the steps
(i)Observation, (ii)Reflection, (iii)Deduction and
(iv)Verification
After testing the hypothesis the researcher either accept or
reject the hypothesis.

Types of research
• 1. Fundamental or pure/Basic research
• 2. Applied research
• 3. Descriptive
• 4. Analytical
• 5. Quantitative
• 6. Qualitative
• 7. Conceptual
• 8. Empirical
• 9. Exploratory
• 10. Creative
• 11. Historical
• 12. Expository
• 13. Expost-facto
• 14. Diagnostic
• 15. Longitudinal
• 16. Simulation
• 17. Action
18. Educational
19. Motivation
20. Formulative
21. Evaluation
22. Library
23. Experimental
24. Hypothesis testing
25. Survey
26. Laboratory
27. Field investigation
28. Causal
29. Technological
30. Policy
31. Conclusive
32. Clinical
33. Other types

Exploratory research
Usually conducted to explore the
research issue in detail but not clearly
defined the alternative options.
It is the initial research which forms the
basis of more conclusive research but
cannot provide a conclusive answer to
research problem.
Exploratory research leads to secondary
research.

Causal research
It is used to test the hypothesis about the
cause and effect relationship of variable.
Under causal research, finding the cause and
effect relationship of variable and what is the
nature of causal relationship between the
variable and the behaviour.
causal relationship mainly understand with the
help of experimental and quasi experimental
studies.

Theoretical research
It is related to some abstract ideas
or theory.
It is generally used by the
philosophers and thinkers to
develop new concepts and idea
about a theory.
It is a part of basic or pure research.

Basic research
Basic research also known as fundamental or pure
research.
It is mainly concerned with generalisation with the
formulation of a theory and it aims at some theoretical
conclusions.
It may verify the odd theory or establish a new one.
Fundamental research aims at the achievement of
knowledge and truth.
It also aims at the attainment, increase and verification
of knowledge.

Applied research
Applied research is the application of research
theories, practices and principles in various
fields.
It is an empirical and practical.
It aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an industrial
organisation, for e.g., marketing research,
educational research, evaluation research,etc.

Descriptive research
It is used to describe an event or to provide a
factual and accurate descriptions of the
population.
It is a fact finding investigation with adequate
interpretation.
Under descriptive research the researcher has
no control over the variables, he can only
report what has happened or what is
happening.

Phases of Business research
Identify industry competition.
Learn the demographic.
Perform or SWOT analysis.
Studying the target audience.
Applying what has been learned.

Module II
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
A specific problem is formulated for precise
investigation or a specific hypothesis is
formulated from an operational observation.
Also known as formulative research .
Many managerial studies used this type of
research.
Under exploratory research development of
hypothesis comes at the end.

Objectives
Emphasis for discovery of ideas
and new insights.
Analysing relevant examples and
cases to stimulate insight,
literature survey and evaluating
the past experience.

Methods
Experience survey
Survey of literature
case study method
Pilot study
Focus group interview

Experience survey
The survey of people who have had practical
experience with the problem i.e., expert survey
It enable the researcher to define the problem
more concisely and may help in the formulation
of the hypothesis.
Under this, people with knowledge in the
respective field, may be contacted for their
views and opinions. They may be able to supply
valuable information.

Survey of literature
(Analysis of secondary data)
The researcher has to survey the existing
literature to see what has been done to the
subject of studies, how it is done and what
conclusions were arrived at.
One of the simplest, short cut and economic
way to gain knowledge and fulfill a research
work.
Theories and concepts from similar areas of
study might be useful in defining the problem
and developing the hypothesis more easily.

Case study
(Insight stimulating experiences)
This method is suitable for areas where
there are few or no experienced persons to
provide necessary information for
development of insights and hypothesis for
specific research.
It consist of the intensive study of selected
instance of the phenomenon.
For this, existing records may be examined
and the unstructured interview may be
conducted.

Pilot Study
It is the preliminary study conducted on a limited scale
before the original study.
It is the small scale replica of the main study and it is
the rehearsal of the main study.
It enable the investigator to gain some awareness of
the nature of the problems before conducting main
studies.
The pilot study is undertaken on a small sample
selected from the population, for this the investigator is
able to frame the questionnaire and schedules on the
basis of information needed from the population.
It assist in discovering the nature of relationship
between variables and in formulating hypothesis.

Focus group interview
• This study generally used for testing the social and
psychological reactions and attitudes of a group.
• It focus the attention of the respondent on a particular
aspect to get the reaction.
• Used to test a particular type of hypothesis and the
interviewer knows in advance the aspects of a question
he has to cover.
• The questions in this type of interview are
predetermined and preplanned.
• This type of interview used to test the programmes and
assess the needs, observe customer’s considerations
and to understand an organisation’s image.
• Focus groups usually involve 7 to 15 people who are
invited to participate in a session.

Process of problem definition
• A researcher may find a potential research
problem through-personal, professional and
academic experience, review of literature,
conferences and seminars, imaginations and
creativity, new technical and social changes, etc.
• Before one takes up a problem for study, one
needs to define it systematically with various
process-(i)stating the problem in general way,
(ii)understanding the nature of it, (iii) surveying
the available literature, (iv) developing the ideas
through discussions, (v) rephrasing the problem.

• Stating the problem in general way – the
researcher can himself state the problem or he can
seek the guidance of the guide or the subject expert in
accomplishing this task by the way of posing questions
and making statements.
• Understanding the nature of problem –the
researcher has to hold discussions with those who
have a knowledge of the problem.
• Surveying the available literature –the researcher
must review all research works already conducted by
others in the same field.
• Developing the ideas through discussions –the
researcher develops new ideas through discussions
with his colleagues and experts.
• Rephrasing the research problem –the researcher
must rephrase the research problem into a working
proposition.

Understanding the background of the
problem
• The researcher understand the origin and nature of
the problem.
• The researcher seek the guidance of the guide or
the subject expert in accomplishing the task.
• The researcher has to discuss the problem which
those who first raised.
• The researcher make a general statement of the
problem.
• The researcher has to hold discussions with those
who have a knowledge of the problem.

Determination of unit of analysis
• Unit analysis refers to the measure in terms
of which content analysis can be done.
• Unit analysis may be (1) meaningful and
significant words relevant to the objectives of
study or (2) themes which indicate broad
social concern and deeper meaning to human
behaviour or (3) items like autobiography,
radio programme, television programme etc
or (4) persons in literary work whose
superiority in sex, nationality, race etc.

Determining relevant variables
• The problem under study deals with relation between
variables.
• A researcher wants to study, how far, the change in one
variable has the effect on another variable.
• The cause factor variable is the independent variable
and the effect factor variable is the dependent variable.
• Therefore there is a cause and effect relation between
the variables. For e.g., the sales turnover depends
upon the advertisement effectiveness of the company,
here sales turnover is the dependent variable and it is
the effect and advertisement effectiveness is the
independent variable and it is the cause.

State the research Questions
• The researcher should state the problem in
general terms, keeping in view either some
practical concern or some scientific or
intellectual interest.
• For this purpose, the researcher must immerse
himself thoroughly in the subject matter
concerning which he wishes to pose a problem.
• The problem stated generally may contain
various ambiguities which must be resolved by
proper thinking and rethinking over the
problem.
• State the research questions by way of posing
questions and by way of making statements.

Hypothesis• A hypothesis adequately explains all the facts connected with
the problem.
• It enables to direct enquiry along right lines.
• It determines the method of verification as well as procedure
for enquiry .
• It limits the scope of enquiry to manageable area.
• It suggests theories which may be solution to the problem.
• It leads to discovery of laws.
• It forms the starting point of investigation.
• It makes observation and experiment possible.
• Hypothesis may be null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis.
• A null hypothesis indicates that the result found in research
does not differ significantly from the result expected on a
probability basis. When null hypothesis rejected we accept
another hypothesis ,it is called as the alternative hypothesis

Steps in formulating
hypothesis
1.Observation
2.Reflection
3.Deduction

Research objectives
• Research is an organized investigation of a problem
where an investigator attempts to gain solution to a
problem.
• In order to get the right solution a clearly defined
objectives are very important.
• A research objective is a clear, concise, declarative
statement, which provides direction to investigate the
variables under the study.
• Research objectives are the results sought by the
researcher at the end of the research process, that
what the researcher will be able to achieve at the end
of the research study.
• There are two types of research objectives, (1) General
objectives (2) Specific objectives.

Module III
RESEARCH DESIGN
(Meaning and definition)
 A research design is a plan of the proposed research
work.
 It is a specific presentation of the various steps and
type of technique adopted in a study.
 F.N Kerlinger defines research design as "the plan,
structure, and strategy of investigation conceived so
as to obtain answers to research questions and to
control variance “.
 In the words of Claire Selltiz a research design is
“the arrangement of conditions for collection and
anlaysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure”

Types of research
design
• Research design for Exploratory
or Formulative studies.
• Research design for Descriptive
and Diagnostic studies.
• Research design for
Experimental studies

Descriptive research design
• A study which wants to portray the characteristics
of a group or individual or situation with using a
descriptive research design.
• It mainly begins with the study of past data.
• Descriptive research design mainly focusing to
acquire knowledge about the problem.
• Under descriptive research designs, data are
collected and analyzed to make interpretations or
conclusions.
• For e.g., “A study about the drug habits among the
teenager’s with special reference to Calicut district”

Methods of Descriptive Research
Design
Data Collection
Using documents
By observation
Through interview or questionnaire method
Analysis and Interpretation
Using various statistical tools and measurements
such as average, dispersion, correlation etc.

Causal research design
• The main emphasis is on determining a cause and effect
relationship.
• It determines which variable is causing a certain
behaviour, and what is the nature of causal relationship
between the variable and the behaviour?.
• Experimental and quasi experimental studies are usually
applied to explore cause and effect relationship.
• Causal research design can be used to test the hypothesis
about cause and effect relationship of variables.
• For e.g., “A study about the advertisement effectiveness
for the improvement of sales turnover in Jyothi
Laboratories Ltd”

SURVEY
• Survey literally means “seeing over” a particular
thing.
• Survey refers to the technique of investigation by
systematic gathering of data by applying
personal contact or interviews when information
about a certain problem is required.
• There are different steps comes in the survey
process starts with the selection of the problem,
defining the problem, determine the time and
source, training given to research workers,
techniques used for conducting survey, analysis
of the data and drawing conclusions .

Continue….
• There are two basic types of surveys, (1) Cross
sectional surveys and (2) Longitudinal Surveys.
• The cross sectional survey are used to gather
information about a population on a single point of
time. E.g. check for purchase trend differences
between the sexes among the age group 25 to 30.
• The longitudinal surveys are used to gather
information over a period of time. Trend studies,
Cohort studies and Panel studies are different types
of longitudinal surveys.
• Trend studies focus on a particular population which
is sampled and scrutinized repeatedly, Cohort study
on a particular population which is sampled and
studied more than once. But in Panel studies find out
why changes in the population are occurring by using
the same sample every time. E.g.measure the growth
pattern among the adolescent students.

Experiments
• Experiment is the basic of scientific research.
• Experiments are conducted to test the hypothesis in
the expectation of confirming or refuting them.
• According to Festinger, an experimental method is
observing the effect of the manipulation of an
independent variable, on a dependent variable.
• Experimental studies assume that causes can be
postulated in advance and that the problem in
research is simply one of determining their conditions
and efficiency.
• The features of experiments are, (i)the isolation of
factors, (ii)replication of experiment and
(iii)quantitative measurement of results.

Type of experiments
Trial and error method-the researcher formulates
hypothesis and tries to test on actual conditions.
Natural and uncontrolled observation method-
experiments conducted in the natural settings or
circumstances.
Controlled observation method-the observation or
study is made under controlled conditions.
Expost facto experiment-the researcher selects two
groups with equal number of members. One group is
under the influence of one factor and other is under
the influence of another but identical factor.
Laboratory method of experiment-experiments
conducted in a laboratory set up.

Experimental research design
• Experiment is the procedure for gaining knowledge by
collecting observation under controlled conditions.
• Experimental design refers to the frame work or
structure of an experiment.
• Experimental designs are used in almost all the areas
of scientific studies.
• Experimental research design is concerned with
making experiments to find out the cause and effect
relationship of the phenomenon under study.
• For e.g., “An analysis about the teaching effectiveness
in the classroom with and without using A V aids”

Secondary data studies
• Secondary data are those which have been
collected by some other person for his purpose
and published.
• Secondary data are the nature of finished
products.
• A researcher uses the secondary data for his
own fulfillment of research work.
• Therefore primary data in the hands of one will
be secondary data in the hands of another.
• Secondary data are collected from different
sources.

Sources of secondary data
Official reports of the central, state and local
governments.
Official publication of the foreign governments and
international bodies like UNO and its subordinate
bodies.
Reports and publication of trade association, banks,
co operative societies and similar semi government
and autonomous organizations.
Technical journals, news papers, books, periodicals,
etc.
Publications of research organizations, centres,
institutes and reports submitted by economists
research scholars etc.

Observation
It is a systematic viewing of a specific
phenomenon in the proper setting for the specific
purpose of gathering data for a particular study.
It is watching things or a keen and scientific study
of a problem.
It is the process of acquiring knowledge through
the use of sense organs with the components of
sensation, attention and perception.
Observation is a classical method for collecting
primary data.
Observation method established a relationship
between the researcher and the respondents.

Sampling Design
• A sample design is a definite plan for
obtaining a sample from a given
population.
• It suggests how many items are to be
included in the sample i.e., the size of the
sample.
• There are many sample design ,a
researcher chooses the appropriate
design.

SAMPLING
63
• A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully
representative) collection of units from a
population used to determine truths about that
population” (Field, 2005)
• Why sample?
– Resources (time, money) and workload
– Gives results with known accuracy that can be
calculated mathematically
• The sampling frame is the list from which the
potential respondents are drawn
– Registrar’s office
– Class rosters
– Must assess sampling frame errors

SAMPLING…….
65
TARGET POPULATION
STUDY POPULATION
SAMPLE

Steps in Sample Design
Determining the type of population-finite, infinite,
existent or hypothetical.
Deciding the sampling units-geographical, structural,
social and individual.
Selecting sampling frame-relevant and properly
drawn up.
Determining the sample size-adequate sample size.
Determining the parameters-proportion, average,
measure of variability etc.
Fixing the finance for the survey-the amount
available.
Selecting a sampling technique-random sampling
and non random sampling.

Types of Samples
67
Probability (Random) Samples
– Simple random sample
– Restricted random sample
– Systematic random sample
– Stratified random sample
– Multistage sample
– Multiphase sample
– Cluster sample
Non-Probability Samples (Non random sampling)
– Convenient sample
– Judgment sampling
– Purposive sample
– Quota

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
68
• A probability sampling scheme is one in which
every unit in the population has a chance
(greater than zero) of being selected in the
sample, and this probability can be accurately
determined.
• . When every element in the population does
have the same probability of selection, this is
known as an 'equal probability of selection'
(EPS) design. Such designs are also referred
to as 'self-weighting' because all sampled
units are given the same weight.

NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING
69
• Any sampling method where some
elements of population have no chance of
selection (these are sometimes referred
to as 'out of coverage'/'undercovered'),
or where the probability of selection
can't be accurately determined. It
involves the selection of elements based
on assumptions regarding the population
of interest, which forms the criteria for
selection. Hence, because the selection
of elements is nonrandom, nonprobability
sampling not allows the estimation of
sampling errors.

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
70
• Applicable when population is small,
homogeneous & readily available.
• All subsets of the frame are given an equal
probability. Each element of the frame
thus has an equal probability of selection.
• It provides for greatest number of
possible samples. This is done by assigning
a number to each unit in the sampling
frame.
• A table of random number or lottery
system is used to determine which units
are to be selected.

RESTRICTED RANDOM
SAMPLING
• It occurs when additional controls are placed on
the process of element selection.
• Under this method presumed that each restricted
site has an equal chance of being the part of a
sample.
• Under this sampling the elements are chosen
using a specific methodology as in probability
sampling or complex probability sampling.
• Restricted random sampling methods are
classified in to (i) stratified sampling (ii)
systematic sampling and (iii) cluster sampling.

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
72
• Systematic sampling relies on arranging the
target population according to some ordering
scheme and then selecting elements at regular
intervals through that ordered list.
• Systematic sampling involves a random start and
then proceeds with the selection of every kth
element from then onwards. In this case,
k=(population size/sample size).
• It is important that the starting point is not
automatically the first in the list, but is instead
randomly chosen from within the first to the
kth element in the list.
• A simple example would be to select every 10th
name from the telephone directory (an 'every
10th' sample, also referred to as 'sampling with
a skip of 10').

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING……
73
As described above, systematic sampling is an EPS
method, because all elements have the same probability
of selection (in the example given, one in ten). It is not
'simple random sampling' because different subsets of
the same size have different selection probabilities -
e.g. the set {4,14,24,...,994} has a one-in-ten
probability of selection, but the set {4,13,24,34,...}
has zero probability of selection.

STRATIFIED SAMPLING
74
• Where population embraces a number of
distinct categories, the frame can be
organized into separate "strata." Each
stratum is then sampled as an independent
sub-population, out of which individual
elements can be randomly selected.
• Every unit in a stratum has same chance of
being selected.
• Using same sampling fraction for all strata
ensures proportionate representation in the
sample.
• Adequate representation of minority
subgroups of interest can be ensured by
stratification & varying sampling fraction
between strata as required.

STRATIFIED SAMPLING…….
75
Draw a sample from each stratum

CLUSTER SAMPLING
76
• Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage
sampling' .
• First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
• Second stage a sample of respondents within
those areas is selected.
• Population divided into clusters of homogeneous
units, usually based on geographical contiguity.
• Sampling units are groups rather than
individuals.
• A sample of such clusters is then selected.
• All units from the selected clusters are studied
e.g., schools, colleges, hospitals, factories etc.

NONPROBABILITY
SAMPLING…….
77
• Nonprobability Sampling includes: Purposive
or Judgement sampling, Convenience
sampling, Quota sampling etc.
• Sampling procedure which does not afford
any basis for estimating the probability for
each item to be included in the sample.
• In non probability sampling generally the
person selecting the sample purposively
selects a sample which is suitable for his
study.

Judgmental sampling or
Purposive sampling
78
The researcher chooses the sample
based on who they think would be
appropriate for the study.
This is used primarily when there is a
limited number of people that have
expertise in the area being researched.
Simply purposive sampling is a study of
data selection for specific for purpose.
For e.g.to study the economic conditions
of people in a country, a few towns or
villages can be deliberately selected by
the researcher.

CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
79
• Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or
accidental or haphazard sampling.
• A type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample
being drawn from that part of the population which is close
to hand. That is, readily available and convenient.
• The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically
make generalizations about the total population from this
sample because it would not be representative enough.
• For example, if the interviewer was to conduct a survey at
a shopping center early in the morning on a given day, the
people that he/she could interview would be limited to those
given there at that given time, which would not represent
the views of other members of society in such an area, if
the survey was to be conducted at different times of day
and several times per week.
• This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
• In social science research, snowball sampling is a similar
technique, where existing study subjects are used to recruit
more subjects into the sample.

QUOTA SAMPLING
80
• The population is first segmented into mutually
exclusive sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling.
• Then judgment used to select subjects or units from
each segment based on a specified proportion.
• For example, an interviewer may be told to sample
200 females and 300 males between the age of 45
and 60.
• It is this second step which makes the technique one
of non-probability sampling.
• In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-
random.
• For example interviewers might be tempted to
interview those who look most helpful. The problem is
that these samples may be biased because not
everyone gets a chance of selection. This random
element is its greatest weakness and quota versus
probability has been a matter of controversy for
many years.

SAMPLING ERRORS• The error arising due to drawing inference about the population on
the basis of sample is termed as sampling error.
• Sampling errors may not be derived an exact equal and true value
result from a population.
• The sampling errors occurs randomly and they are compensatory
type.
• The measure of sampling error is called precision of the sampling
plan.
• When the sample size increases, sampling errors decrease.
• If the population is homogeneous the sampling error become smaller.
• Sampling error may be systematic or biased and unbiased, absolute or
relative.
• For e.g., “A study about the drug habits among the teenager’s with
special reference to Calicut district”
• For this study, the researcher took wrong procedure and methods for
data collection is a sampling error.

NON SAMPLING ERRORS
• The errors arising mainly at the stages of
ascertaining and processing of data are termed as
non sampling errors.
• Non sampling error can occur at every stage of
planning and execution of the census survey.
• Non sampling errors may happening due to (i)
Data collected are inadequate and not consistent
with the objective of the survey. (ii) In appropriate
statistical unit. (iii) Lack of trained and
experienced investigators. (iv) Errors in
presentation and summarization of data.

Measurement and Scaling
• Measurement is the process of observing and recording the
observations that are collected as part of a research.
• It is required in research to gathering data.
• Measurement means the process of assigning numbers to
characteristics relating to an objects, events, persons etc.
• Assigning number to the properties of objects is easy when they
are quantitative, but it is difficult in the case of qualitative
aspects. For e.g., height and weight easy for measurement but
character and ability it is not easy for measurement.
• Scaling refers to measuring something.
• It is a device used for measuring.
• Scales can be classified on the basis of (a) objective of study (b)
nature of response (c ) degree of subjectivity (d) number of
dimensions (e) scale properties (f) scale construction technique
Module IV

Scaling….
Objective of study –judge the stimulus object of the
respondent.
Nature of response –scale may be rating scale and
ranking scale.
Degree of subjectivity – measure subjective personal
preferences.
Number of dimensions –classified as unidimensional
and multidimensional.
Scale properties –classified in to nominal scale,
ordinal scale, interval scale and ratio scale.
Scale construction technique –they are arbitrary
approach, consensus approach, item analysis approach,
cumulative scale approach and factor analysis

Different Scales
Nominal Scale
Ordinal Scale
Interval Scale
Ratio Scale
Rating Scale
Ranking Scale
Attitude Scale
Arbitrary Scale
Differential Scale (Thurston scale)
Summated Scale (Likert type)
Cumulative Scale (Guttman scalogram)
Factor Scale…etc.

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