The document discusses various aspects of research methods and processes. It defines research as the gathering of new knowledge from primary and secondary sources through systematic investigation. It notes that research involves identifying and formulating the problem, conducting an extensive literature review, developing hypotheses, preparing the research design, collecting and analyzing data, and preparing a research report. The key steps in the research process are formulating the problem, literature survey, developing a synopsis, identifying variables, setting hypotheses, research design, sampling, data collection, analysis, testing hypotheses, and reporting. The types of research designs discussed are exploratory, descriptive, causal, and experimental.

1. BUSINESS RESEARCH
METHODS
B5
CLASS ROOM DISCUSSIONS
BY
MUJEEB RAHIMAN KATTALI
ASST.PROF IN COMMERCE &
MANAGEMENT STUDIES,
SIAS-VAZHAYOOR

2. FEATURES OF RESEARCH
It is gathering of new knowledge from primary and secondary
sources.
It is an expert, systematic and accurate investigation.
It is logical and objective.
It attempts to organize data in quantitative terms.
It is not an easy task need hard work and patience.
The researcher free from prejudice and bias and also free from
consequences of his findings.
It deals with a problem which demands a solution.
It involves a set of hypotheses concerning the tentative conclusions
of the solutions of a problem.
It is carefully reported.

3. Objectives
Decision making objectives
Project objectives
Policy objectives
Controlling objectives
Economic and business environmental objectives
Market objectives
Product Development objectives
Innovation objectives
Customer satisfaction objectives
Profit objectives
Promotional objectives and
Corporate image objectives.

4. RESEARCH PROCESS
The various steps that are necessary to carry out a research
efficiency are known as research process. It consist of…
1. Formulating research problem
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Writing a primary synopsis
4. Identifying and labeling variables
5. Developing the hypothesis
6. Preparing the research design
7. Determining sample design
8. Collecting the data
9. Execution of the project
10. Processing and analyzing of data
11. Testing of hypothesis
12. Preparation of research report

5. Identifying, evaluating and formulating the research
problem
A researcher identifies, evaluate and formulate a
correct problem on the basis of
(1) Researcher’s familiarity and experience in the
field of study,
(2) Guidance from colleagues
(3) Personal interest and aptitude
(4) Availability of data and other information
Extensive Literature survey
Researcher examine all available literature both
conceptual and empirical.
Conceptual- concepts and theories
Empirical- facts and figure observed in the earlier
studies

6.  Writing a primary synopsis
 A research worker has to write a synopsis of the topic
selected for research work mentioning the summary of what
is going to be done under his research.
 Identifying and labeling variables
 Identifying and labeling dependent variable and
independent variable. Independent variable is the cause and
dependent variable is the effect. Eg. Achievement and
Intelligence.
 Setting up of hypothesis
 A hypothesis is a tentative conclusion of logically drawn. A
hypothesis provides the focal point for research. The
hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the scope
of the research work.

7.  Preparing the research design
 A research design is a plan that specifies the sources and
types of information relevant to the research problem.
 It contains (a) clear statement of research problem (b)
procedure and techniques to be used for gathering
information (c) population to be studied (d) methods to be
used in processing and analyzing data.
 Determining the sample design
 Select a sample from the universe (population) and make
studies about the universe through this sample.
 Sample design refers to the techniques or the procedure
which the researcher would adopt in selecting some
sampling units from the universe for drawing inferences
about the universe.

8.  Collection of data
 Data collecting through the sources of primary and secondary
 Methods of collecting primary data are (a) observation, (b)
personal interview, (c) telephone interview, (d) questionnaire
,(e)schedule, etc. The secondary sources mean published work,
books, reports, journals, newspaper, magazines, etc.
 Execution of the project
 The researcher has to execute the project in a systematic and in
time.
 Processing, Analysis and interpretation of data by
statistical methods.
 Processing of data consists of classification, tabulation and coding.
 Analysis and interpretation of data through various statistical
methods and techniques such as, Average, Co efficient of
correlation and dispersion, etc.

9.  Testing hypothesis
 For testing the hypothesis we are using number of statistical
tests such as ‘t’ test, ‘F’ test , test. The testing result in
either accepting or rejecting the hypothesis.
 Preparation of report or thesis
 Finally the researcher prepares the report or the outcome.
 A report is a detailed description of what has been done and
how it has been done with respect to a particular area or
topic.
 The reports contains, introduction, review of related
literature, methodology, data analysis and interpretation,
findings and conclusion, etc. then Bibliography and Appendix

10. Variable
• A quantity which can assume a range of numerical
values is known as variable.
• A variable is concept which can take different
quantitative values.
• A variable is a varying concept.
• The word variable may also refer to an event or
process that can be changed or can change on its
own accord.
• The variable are categorised in to independent,
dependent, extraneous, intervening, dichotomous,
quantitative & qualitative, observable & dummy,
exploratory & criterion etc.

11. Proposition
• Proposition generally termed as hypothesis.
• It is tentative conclusion formulated for empirical testing.
• A proposition , generally means a mere assumptions or
suppositions to be proved or disproved. For eg, when the
sales turnover of an organisation declining , a researcher
formulates the proposition that the main reasons for the
sales declining is low quality product.
• When this proposition is tested by collecting information
and applying suitable methods the proposition stands either
accepted or rejected.
• If the hypothesis is accepted the idea or belief through the
hypothesis becomes fact.

12. Types of research
• 1. Fundamental or pure/Basic research
• 2. Applied research
• 3. Descriptive
• 4. Analytical
• 5. Quantitative
• 6. Qualitative
• 7. Conceptual
• 8. Empirical
• 9. Exploratory
• 10. Creative
• 11. Historical
• 12. Expository
• 13. Expost-facto
• 14. Diagnostic
• 15. Longitudinal
• 16. Simulation
• 17. Action
18. Educational
19. Motivation
20. Formulative
21. Evaluation
22. Library
23. Experimental
24. Hypothesis testing
25. Survey
26. Laboratory
27. Field investigation
28. Causal
29. Technological
30. Policy
31. Conclusive
32. Clinical
33. Other types

13. Exploratory research
Usually conducted to explore the
research issue in detail but not clearly
defined the alternative options.
It is the initial research which forms the
basis of more conclusive research but
cannot provide a conclusive answer to
research problem.
Exploratory research leads to secondary
research.

14. Causal research
It is used to test the hypothesis about the
cause and effect relationship of variable.
Under causal research, finding the cause and
effect relationship of variable and what is the
nature of causal relationship between the
variable and the behaviour.
causal relationship mainly understand with the
help of experimental and quasi experimental
studies.

15. Theoretical research
It is related to some abstract ideas
or theory.
It is generally used by the
philosophers and thinkers to
develop new concepts and idea
about a theory.
It is a part of basic or pure research.

16. Empirical research
Empirical research based on the experience
and observation.
The study, with the help of previous knowledge
i.e., facts and figures observed in the earlier
studies.
The researcher prove or disprove his
hypothesis through the facts and figures.
The study has a great potential for they lead to
inductions and deductions.

17. Basic research
Basic research also known as fundamental or pure
research.
It is mainly concerned with generalisation with the
formulation of a theory and it aims at some theoretical
conclusions.
It may verify the odd theory or establish a new one.
Fundamental research aims at the achievement of
knowledge and truth.
It also aims at the attainment, increase and verification
of knowledge.

18. Applied research
Applied research is the application of research
theories, practices and principles in various
fields.
It is an empirical and practical.
It aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an industrial
organisation, for e.g., marketing research,
educational research, evaluation research,etc.

19. Descriptive research
It is used to describe an event or to provide a
factual and accurate descriptions of the
population.
It is a fact finding investigation with adequate
interpretation.
Under descriptive research the researcher has
no control over the variables, he can only
report what has happened or what is
happening.

20. Phases of Business research
Identify industry competition.
Learn the demographic.
Perform or SWOT analysis.
Studying the target audience.
Applying what has been learned.

21. Research Hypothesis
It is usually considered as the principal instrument in
research.
It provides direction to research.
It defines what is relevant and what is irrelevant.
It specifies difference between fruitful and fruitless
research.
It guides to the process of discovery.
It enables the investigator to understand, with clarity, his
problems, and to select procedures and methods to be used
for solving problems.
It serves as a frame work for drawing conclusions.
An Hypothesis formulation comprising the steps
(i)Observation, (ii)Reflection, (iii)Deduction and
(iv)Verification
After testing the hypothesis the researcher either accept or
reject the hypothesis.

22. Characteristics
Conceptual clarity and definiteness.
Verifiable and capable of being tested.
Specific in nature.
Non contradictoriness.
Simplicity.
Related to available techniques.
Related to body of theory.

23. THEORY BUILDING
• The process of building a statement of
concepts and their interrelationship that
shows how and why a phenomenon occurs.
Eg: inductive and deductive theory.
• Theory building mainly purpose for prediction
and understanding.
• Simply theory building is a coherent set of
general proposition used as principles of
explanation of the apparent relationships of
certain observed phenomena.

24. INDUCTION THEORY
• The logical process of establishing a general
proposition on the basis of observation of
particular facts. (particular to general)
• Eg, Coconut leaf’s colour is green,
Curry leaf’s colour is green ,
So all leave’s colours are green.
• Using inductive theory building one starts
with a specific observation as the basis for
which we develop a general pattern and
tentative hypothesis as the foundation of
theory

25. INDUCTION THEORY
PATTERN
OBSERVATION
TENTATIVE HYPOTHESIS
THEORY

26. DEDUCTION THEORY
• The logical process of deriving a conclusion from a
known premise or something known to be true.
• Eg.,All managers are human being
Azim premji is a manager
So, we can deduce that Azim premji is a human
being.
• Using deductive theory building one starts with a
given theory as the basis for which we develop
hypothesis from general to specific.
• Simply deductive theory is general to particular.

27. DEDUCTION THEORY
HYPOTHESIS
THEORY
OBSERVATION
CONFIRMATION

28. Role of theory in research
Theory narrows the range of facts to be studied-
what is needed and what is not needed.
Provides a conceptual framework- defining the
terms and concepts that are commonly used.
Summarise the facts- what is already known.
States a general uniformity beyond the
immediate observation.
Theory used for prediction to further research-
known to unknown

29. Module II
RESEARCH DESIGN
(Meaning and definition)
 A research design is a plan of the proposed research
work.
 It is a specific presentation of the various steps and
type of technique adopted in a study.
 F.N Kerlinger defines research design as "the plan,
structure, and strategy of investigation conceived so
as to obtain answers to research questions and to
control variance “.
 In the words of Claire Selltiz a research design is
“the arrangement of conditions for collection and
anlaysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure”

30. Types of research
design
• Research design for Exploratory
or Formulative studies.
• Research design for Descriptive
and Diagnostic studies.
• Research design for
Experimental studies

31. Exploratory research design
• A specific problem is formulated for precise investigation
or a specific hypothesis is formulated from an operational
observation.
• This type of studies are known as formulative studies.
• It aims at gaining familiarity with a new phenomenon.
• Most of the social researches are of exploratory nature.
• It is highly unstructured because we doesn't begin with
specific hypothesis which we aim to test, the
development of hypothesis comes at the end.
• Exploratory research design methods are, (a) survey of
literature, (b) experience survey and (c ) analysis of insight
stimulating experiences.
• For e.g., “A critical analytical study of Business Studies
Text Book prescribed in the higher secondary class of
Kerala state”

32. (a) Experience survey
 The survey of people who have had practical
experience with the problem i.e., expert survey
 It enable the researcher to define the problem
more concisely and may help in the formulation of
the hypothesis.
 Under this, people with knowledge in the
respective field, may be contacted for their views
and opinions. They may be able to supply valuable
information.

33. (b) Survey of literature
(Analysis of secondary data)
 The researcher has to survey the existing literature
to see what has been done to the subject of studies,
how it is done and what conclusions were arrived
at.
 One of the simplest, short cut and economic way to
gain knowledge and fulfill a research work.
 Theories and concepts from similar areas of study
might be useful in defining the problem and
developing the hypothesis more easily.

34. (c ) Case study
(Insight stimulating experiences)
This method is suitable for areas where
there are few or no experienced persons to
provide necessary information for
development of insights and hypothesis for
specific research.
It consist of the intensive study of selected
instance of the phenomenon.
For this, existing records may be examined
and the unstructured interview may be
conducted.

35. Causal research design
• The main emphasis is on determining a cause and effect
relationship.
• It determines which variable is causing a certain
behaviour, and what is the nature of causal relationship
between the variable and the behaviour?.
• Experimental and quasi experimental studies are usually
applied to explore cause and effect relationship.
• Causal research design can be used to test the hypothesis
about cause and effect relationship of variables.
• For e.g., “A study about the advertisement effectiveness
for the improvement of sales turnover in Jyothi
Laboratories Ltd”

36. Descriptive research design
• A study which wants to portray the characteristics
of a group or individual or situation with using a
descriptive research design.
• It mainly begins with the study of past data.
• Descriptive research design mainly focusing to
acquire knowledge about the problem.
• Under descriptive research designs, data are
collected and analyzed to make interpretations or
conclusions.
• For e.g., “A study about the drug habits among the
teenager’s with special reference to Calicut district”

37. Experimental research design
• Experiment is the procedure for gaining knowledge by
collecting observation under controlled conditions.
• Experimental design refers to the frame work or
structure of an experiment.
• Experimental designs are used in almost all the areas
of scientific studies.
• Experimental research design is concerned with
making experiments to find out the cause and effect
relationship of the phenomenon under study.
• For e.g., “An analysis about the teaching effectiveness
in the classroom with and without using A V aids”

38. Basic principles of
experimental designs
1.Principle of Replication
2.Principle of Randomization
3.Principle of Local Control

39. 1.Principle of Replication-The entire
experiment can be repeated several times for
better results.
2. Principle of Randomization-Experiment
conducted on the basis of some random
sampling technique.
3.Principle of Local Control-Control
the deliberate force of extraneous factor and
conduct the experiment.

40. Types of Experimental designs
Informal Experimental Designs
 After only design
 After only with control design
 Before and after without control design
 Before and after with control design
 Ex-post facto design
Formal Experimental Designs
 Completely randomized design
 Randomized block design
 Latin squares design
 Factorial design

41. Validity of Findings
• Validity means the effectiveness of an instrument in measuring
the specific property which it intends to measure.
• An instrument is valid when it measures most accurately the
objects or individuals and their characteristics.
• Findings may be connected with the nature of object measured
and the measuring instruments.
• When we are measuring certain physical properties like height,
weight, length etc, the validity of findings are not a great problem
because for measuring them direct and standardized measuring
devices are available. On the other hand , there is many social
characteristics which are highly abstract in nature and can be
measured only indirectly such as attitude, aspiration, anxiety etc.
• Validity is concerned with different aspect of measurement
situation, there are four types of validity (1)Predictive validity
(2)Concurrent validity (3)Content validity (4)Construct validity.

42. • Predictive Validity -it refers to the usefulness of
a test in predicting some future performance.
• Concurrent Validity –tests that help to
distinguish the individuals who differ in their
present state is said to have concurrent validity.
• Content Validity –it is the representativeness of
the content and how far the content of the
property being measured.
• Construct Validity –it refers to determining
which factors or properties can explain the
variation in the scores or say variance of the
test.

43. It refers to the extent to which the
changes observed in the DV are
caused by the IV.
Internal validity cannot be answered positively
unless the design provides adequate control of
extraneous variables.
Essentially a problem of control.
Anything that contributes to the control of a
research design contributes to its internal
validity.
INTERNAL VALIDITY

44. External Validity of Research
Designs
• Refers to generalizability or representativeness
of the findings.
• Question addressed here is:
• To what groups, settings, experimental
variables, and measurement variables can these
findings be generalized?

65. Measurement and Scaling
• Measurement are required in research to gather data.
• Measurement means the process of assigning numbers to
characteristics relating to an objects, events, persons etc.
• Assigning number to the properties of objects is easy when
they are quantitative, but it is difficult in the case of
qualitative aspects. For e.g., height and weight easy for
measurement but character and ability it is not easy for
measurement.
• Scaling refers to measuring something.
• It is a device used for measuring.
• Scales can be classified on the basis of (a) objective of study
(b) nature of response (c ) degree of subjectivity (d) number
of dimensions (e) scale properties (f) scale construction
technique

66. Scaling….
Objective of study –judge the stimulus object of the
respondent.
Nature of response –scale may be rating scale and
ranking scale.
Degree of subjectivity – measure subjective personal
preferences.
Number of dimensions –classified as unidimensional
and multidimensional.
Scale properties –classified in to nominal scale,
ordinal scale, interval scale and ratio scale.
Scale construction technique –they are arbitrary
approach, consensus approach, item analysis approach,
cumulative scale approach and factor analysis

67. Different Scales
Nominal Scale
Ordinal Scale
Interval Scale
Ratio Scale
Rating Scale
Ranking Scale
Attitude Scale
Arbitrary Scale
Differential Scale (Thurston scale)
Summated Scale (Likert type)
Cumulative Scale (Guttman scalogram)
Factor Scale…etc.

73. CONSTRUCTION OF INSTRUMENT
• Instrument is the general term that researchers
use for a measurement device (survey, test,
questionnaire, etc.).
• To help distinguish between instrument and
instrumentation, consider that the instrument is
the device and instrumentation is the course of
action (the process of developing, testing, and
using the device).
• Instruments fall into two broad categories,
researcher-completed and subject-completed

74. Researcher-completed
Instruments
Subject-completed
Instruments
Rating scales Questionnaires
Interview schedules/guides Self-checklists
Tally sheets Attitude scales
Flowcharts Personality inventories
Performance checklists Achievement/aptitude tests
Time-and-motion logs Projective devices
Observation forms Sociometric devices

75. VALIDITY OF AN INSTRUMENT
• Validity is the extent to which an instrument
measures what it is supposed to measure and
performs as it is designed to perform.
• It is rare, if nearly impossible, that an instrument
be 100% valid, so validity is generally measured
in degrees.
• As a process, validation involves collecting and
analyzing data to assess the accuracy of an
instrument.
• There are numerous statistical tests and
measures to assess the validity of quantitative
instruments, which generally involves pilot
testing.

76. Validity of an Instrument….
• The remainder of this discussion
focuses on external validity and
content validity.
• External validity is the extent to which
the results of a study can be
generalized from a sample to a
population.
• Content validity refers to the
appropriateness of the content of an
instrument.

77. Reliability of an Instrument
• Reliability can be thought of as consistency. Does
the instrument consistently measure what it is
intended to measure? .
• It is not possible to calculate reliability; however, there
are four general estimators that you may encounter in
reading research:
• Inter-Rater/Observer Reliability: The degree to which
different raters/observers give consistent answers or
estimates.
• Test-Retest Reliability: The consistency of a measure
evaluated over time.
• Parallel-Forms Reliability: The reliability of two tests
constructed the same way, from the same content.
• Internal Consistency Reliability: The consistency of
results across items.