The document provides details about an industrial training project on automation using programmable logic controllers (PLCs) conducted by Rohit Singh at Moserbaer in Noida, India. It describes Moserbaer's CD manufacturing process which involves 23 steps from color buffer to receiver handler. These include cooling, dye coating, quality control, sputtering, UV lacquering and final inspection. PLCs are used to automate the process by controlling pneumatic cylinders, sensors and other components involved in the robotic arms that transport CDs between each stage.
Pneumatics: Shuttle, Twin pressure, Quick Exhaust, Time Delay, FRLAbhishek Patange
The document discusses various components used in pneumatic systems including logic gates, valves, and FRL units. It begins with explanations of shuttle valves and twin pressure/dual pressure valves that can function as OR and AND logic gates respectively. Various valves are then discussed such as time delay valves, quick exhaust valves, and their applications. Speed control methods and the stick-slip effect in pneumatics are also covered. Finally, the construction and working of the main components of an FRL (filter, regulator, lubricator) unit are explained in detail with diagrams.
The Project Automatic Car Parking System using 89C51 Microcontroller is an interesting project which uses 89C51 microcontroller as its brain. The project is designed for car parking. The aim of this project is to atomize the car park for allowing the cars into the park. LCD is provided to display the information about the total number of cars that can be parked and the place free for parking. Two IR Tx Rx pairs are used in this project to identify the entry or exit of the cars into out of park. These two IR TX-RX pairs are arranged either side of the gate. The TX and Rx are arranged face to face across the road so that the RX should get IR signal continuously. Whenever the mains are switched on, the LCD displays the message"parking space for 10 vehicles". The number indicates the maximum capacity of park in this project. Whenever a car comes in front of the gate, the IR signal gets disturbed and the microcontroller will open the gate by rotating the stepper motor. The gate will be closed only after the car leaves the second IR pair since the microcontroller should know whether the car left the gate or not. Now the microcontroller decrements the value of the count and displays it on LCD. In this way, the microcontroller decrements the count whenever the car leaves the park and displays it on LCD. lf the count reaches'0', i e. if the park is completely filled, the microcontroller will display"NO SPACE FOR PARKING" on LCD. And now if any vehicle tries to enter the park, the gate will not be opened since there is no space. If any vehicle leaves the park, the controller will increment the count and allows the other vehicles for parking This project uses regulated 5v. 500mA power supply. Unregulated 12v DC is used for relay. 7805 three terminal voltage regulator is used for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave rectifier is used to rectify the ac output of secondary of 230/12V step down transformer
Final Year Project Report Sample for Engineers - IIT and State UniversityHitesh Sharma
A sample report for all final year college students, for Engineering and Management Branch.
Best for Mechanical and Core branch students.
Includes - First Page, Index Style, Abstract, Body, COnsclusion and Designing Methods.
Share and Support this file, thanks and also fo for my other uploads.
Pankaj Dogra completed an industrial internship at TrellebrogVibracoustic (India) Private Limited in Mohali where he gained valuable experience in various departments. The internship objectives included understanding marketing strategies, product comparisons, and corporate culture. During the internship, Pankaj identified molding defects, undertook a project analyzing injection molding defects, and learned about safety practices and customer satisfaction. The internship provided an excellent opportunity to develop managerial skills within a corporate environment.
This document describes a student project to create a robotic spray painter with infinite axis. It can paint large surfaces and objects by moving in x, y, and z axes, controlled remotely. The project aims to improve on industrial spray painters, which have a finite range. Sections provide an introduction, selected parts, cost estimate, working principle, applications, advantages, and plans for future expansion and work.
- The document contains the resume of Saddam Ansari, including his personal details, educational qualifications, work experience as a Junior Design Engineer developing parts using CAD software like Catia and AutoCAD, technical skills, projects undertaken and academic awards. It summarizes his 1 year of experience in design engineering and mechanical processes like injection moulding.
Drone (Unmanned aerial vehicle) is an electronic device which is remote controlled based aircraft used to achieve vertical flight with stability using KK2.1.5 board and it can be used for live streaming and also for capturing images using camera and as technology advances increase the performance and reduces the cost of microcontroller so that general public can design their own drone . The main aim of this project is for live streaming and collecting images. This drone includes a frame, flight control board, motors, electronic speed controllers, a transmitter, a receiver, a Lipo battery and a camera interfaced with the kit. Individual components were tested and verified. The tuning and calibration of the PID controller were done to obtain stabilization on each axis. Currently, the drone can properly stabilize itself. The aim of the project has been achieved, resulting in stable and capturing images.
This document provides an overview of the Data Tag project, which aims to intelligently tag textual data and web pages based on their semantic context rather than just keywords. It begins with an introduction describing the purpose, system overview, and problem statement. It then discusses requirements such as user characteristics, functional requirements, dependencies, and constraints. The design section covers the functional design using data flow diagrams, database design using Redis, and GUI design. It also describes the coding, testing, installation, user instructions, future work, and provides a summary.
Pneumatics: Shuttle, Twin pressure, Quick Exhaust, Time Delay, FRLAbhishek Patange
The document discusses various components used in pneumatic systems including logic gates, valves, and FRL units. It begins with explanations of shuttle valves and twin pressure/dual pressure valves that can function as OR and AND logic gates respectively. Various valves are then discussed such as time delay valves, quick exhaust valves, and their applications. Speed control methods and the stick-slip effect in pneumatics are also covered. Finally, the construction and working of the main components of an FRL (filter, regulator, lubricator) unit are explained in detail with diagrams.
The Project Automatic Car Parking System using 89C51 Microcontroller is an interesting project which uses 89C51 microcontroller as its brain. The project is designed for car parking. The aim of this project is to atomize the car park for allowing the cars into the park. LCD is provided to display the information about the total number of cars that can be parked and the place free for parking. Two IR Tx Rx pairs are used in this project to identify the entry or exit of the cars into out of park. These two IR TX-RX pairs are arranged either side of the gate. The TX and Rx are arranged face to face across the road so that the RX should get IR signal continuously. Whenever the mains are switched on, the LCD displays the message"parking space for 10 vehicles". The number indicates the maximum capacity of park in this project. Whenever a car comes in front of the gate, the IR signal gets disturbed and the microcontroller will open the gate by rotating the stepper motor. The gate will be closed only after the car leaves the second IR pair since the microcontroller should know whether the car left the gate or not. Now the microcontroller decrements the value of the count and displays it on LCD. In this way, the microcontroller decrements the count whenever the car leaves the park and displays it on LCD. lf the count reaches'0', i e. if the park is completely filled, the microcontroller will display"NO SPACE FOR PARKING" on LCD. And now if any vehicle tries to enter the park, the gate will not be opened since there is no space. If any vehicle leaves the park, the controller will increment the count and allows the other vehicles for parking This project uses regulated 5v. 500mA power supply. Unregulated 12v DC is used for relay. 7805 three terminal voltage regulator is used for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave rectifier is used to rectify the ac output of secondary of 230/12V step down transformer
Final Year Project Report Sample for Engineers - IIT and State UniversityHitesh Sharma
A sample report for all final year college students, for Engineering and Management Branch.
Best for Mechanical and Core branch students.
Includes - First Page, Index Style, Abstract, Body, COnsclusion and Designing Methods.
Share and Support this file, thanks and also fo for my other uploads.
Pankaj Dogra completed an industrial internship at TrellebrogVibracoustic (India) Private Limited in Mohali where he gained valuable experience in various departments. The internship objectives included understanding marketing strategies, product comparisons, and corporate culture. During the internship, Pankaj identified molding defects, undertook a project analyzing injection molding defects, and learned about safety practices and customer satisfaction. The internship provided an excellent opportunity to develop managerial skills within a corporate environment.
This document describes a student project to create a robotic spray painter with infinite axis. It can paint large surfaces and objects by moving in x, y, and z axes, controlled remotely. The project aims to improve on industrial spray painters, which have a finite range. Sections provide an introduction, selected parts, cost estimate, working principle, applications, advantages, and plans for future expansion and work.
- The document contains the resume of Saddam Ansari, including his personal details, educational qualifications, work experience as a Junior Design Engineer developing parts using CAD software like Catia and AutoCAD, technical skills, projects undertaken and academic awards. It summarizes his 1 year of experience in design engineering and mechanical processes like injection moulding.
Drone (Unmanned aerial vehicle) is an electronic device which is remote controlled based aircraft used to achieve vertical flight with stability using KK2.1.5 board and it can be used for live streaming and also for capturing images using camera and as technology advances increase the performance and reduces the cost of microcontroller so that general public can design their own drone . The main aim of this project is for live streaming and collecting images. This drone includes a frame, flight control board, motors, electronic speed controllers, a transmitter, a receiver, a Lipo battery and a camera interfaced with the kit. Individual components were tested and verified. The tuning and calibration of the PID controller were done to obtain stabilization on each axis. Currently, the drone can properly stabilize itself. The aim of the project has been achieved, resulting in stable and capturing images.
This document provides an overview of the Data Tag project, which aims to intelligently tag textual data and web pages based on their semantic context rather than just keywords. It begins with an introduction describing the purpose, system overview, and problem statement. It then discusses requirements such as user characteristics, functional requirements, dependencies, and constraints. The design section covers the functional design using data flow diagrams, database design using Redis, and GUI design. It also describes the coding, testing, installation, user instructions, future work, and provides a summary.
The document provides details about Shani Kumar Singh's 6-week internship at the Rail Wheel Plant in Bela, Bihar. It includes a description of the plant's facilities and wheel manufacturing process. The plant uses electric arc furnaces to melt scrap steel, which is then poured into molds to form cast wheels. Different shops support activities like mold repair, final processing of wheels, and maintenance. The internship report provides technical details to give insight into the plant's operations.
1) The document discusses various topics related to robotics including definitions, degrees of freedom, robot arm and wrist configurations, joint classifications, robot safety, components and control systems.
2) It provides details on common robot arm configurations including rectangular, cylindrical, spherical and revolute coordinated systems.
3) The document also describes robot control systems including limited sequence control, playback with point-to-point control and continuous path control as well as intelligent control.
The document describes a proposed automated wireless meter reading system. It would consist of meter reading retrieval units with microcontrollers and Zigbee transceivers attached to electricity meters. A wireless personal area network using Zigbee would transfer meter readings to a handheld device. This would allow readings to be collected remotely without manual inspection, reducing costs and errors. Digital meters would measure voltage, current and power consumption. Readings would be sent via Zigbee and stored on the handheld device for later transfer to a computer database. The system aims to make meter reading easier, more accurate and help utilities better manage electricity distribution.
Summer Training Report for Diploma (mechanical) StudentsKashifRaza113
This Training is completed at UPSRTC (Lucknow) by a student of polytechnic(mechanical) from Integral University Lucknow. UPSRTC is a Government Organisation for Public Transport in Uttar Pradesh.
This document summarizes a student project report on the design of a portable press machine. A group of 4 mechanical engineering students at Gujarat Technological University conducted the project during their 4th semester in 2017-2018 under the guidance of their professor. The project involved reverse engineering an existing press, identifying user needs through various canvassing techniques, researching prior designs of presses, and developing a conceptual prototype for a portable press. The report documents each stage of the design process and aims to fulfill the learning requirements for the students' Design Engineering course.
This document describes the design of a plastic solar water heater. It includes design considerations, calculations, comparisons to conventional solar water heaters, and cost estimations. The key features of the plastic solar water heater are that it uses inexpensive materials like plastic bottles, PEX pipes, and coconut coir insulation. It is estimated to cost 50% less than conventional solar water heaters while achieving similar maximum water temperatures. The design aims to provide a low-cost option for solar hot water.
This document summarizes a student project to design and fabricate a brimmed diffuser for a wind turbine. The brimmed diffuser is intended to increase the efficiency and power output of the wind turbine. The design of the brimmed diffuser is presented, including dimensions calculated based on the turbine diameter. Testing showed that the brimmed diffuser increased wind velocity and the power output of the turbine. The project demonstrates the potential for brimmed diffusers to improve wind turbine performance and power generation.
The document discusses two-stroke and four-stroke internal combustion engines. It provides details on the working principles of two-stroke petrol and diesel engines. A two-stroke engine completes the processes of intake, compression, combustion and exhaust in two strokes of the piston rather than four strokes as in a four-stroke engine. This allows a two-stroke engine to produce power during every revolution of the crankshaft.
This document discusses different types of rotary compressors used to compress air or gas. It describes positive displacement and roto dynamic rotary compressors. It then provides details on the construction and working of rotary lobe compressors, rotary vane compressors, rotary screw compressors, and scroll compressors. For each type, it outlines the key components and explains how compression is achieved as the gas is drawn in and compressed spaces are reduced in size.
Aerodynamic Drag Reduction for Ground Vehicles using Lateral Guide Vanes Mohamed Shahin
This document is the final report for an engineering design project aimed at reducing aerodynamic drag on sport utility vehicles using side guide vanes. A team of four students conducted simulations and experiments to test designs for side guide vanes on a scale model of a Hummer H2. In the second phase of the project, the team finalized their design, manufactured guide vanes out of plexiglass, attached them to the model using connecting plates, and tested the prototype in a wind tunnel. The simulations predicted a 15% reduction in drag coefficient with the guide vanes, while experimental testing yielded a 9% reduction, within 4% of the numerical results.
This project aims to design a Bluetooth controlled robot car that can be controlled using an Android phone or laptop. An Atmega8 microcontroller is used for serial communication via a Bluetooth HC-05 module using embedded C programming. The HC-05 module allows wireless Bluetooth control of the robot car from a phone or laptop. An L293D motor driver is used to control the motors based on commands received over Bluetooth from the Android device.
Automatic Irrigation System Project ReportEr Gupta
The project implements an automatic irrigation system using soil moisture sensors. Sensors in each agricultural field detect the humidity level in the soil and send signals to a microcontroller. If a field's soil becomes dry, the sensor sends a signal to the microcontroller which then supplies water to that field until the soil moisture level increases again. The system aims to reduce water usage through automated irrigation only when needed.
Hydraulic actuators convert hydraulic energy into mechanical motion and come in two types: linear actuators, which produce linear motion, and rotary actuators, which produce rotational motion. Linear actuators include single acting cylinders, double acting cylinders, and double rod cylinders. Rotary actuators include rotary vane actuators and rack and pinion actuators, which can be single or double cylinder designs.
The document provides details about an industrial training report completed by two interns at Hardrock Attachments Pvt. Ltd., a manufacturer of fabricated structures for construction machinery. The report describes the company's plant layout, manufacturing processes, machinery, quality systems, products, and maintenance procedures. It aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the heavy fabrication and machining industry for educational purposes.
This document provides the format and structure for a term paper on the game Tic Tac Toe. It includes sections for the title page, table of contents, introduction, proposed system description and requirements, requirement analysis, system design, source code, testing, and future scope. It describes the problem statement, functions to be provided by the system, and system requirements. It also includes sample source code for the game and descriptions of the requirement analysis and system design processes. The overall summary provides an outline and overview of the contents and organization of the term paper project on developing a Tic Tac Toe game.
Valve timing diagram is one of the most important topic about engine. This gives u the idea about how engine's valves should open and close. Knowing this u can make your engine more efficient and effective.
Hydraulic Intensifier ( Pressure raising device ) Umar Saeed
Through this presentation you will know about the how Hydraulic Intensifier works, its working principle and its components. This presentation also covers its animation through which you easily understand its function.
This document describes how to build a Bluetooth controlled robot using an Arduino Uno board. The robot uses an HC-05 Bluetooth module to receive control commands from a mobile phone or PC app over Bluetooth. The Arduino controls two DC motors connected to wheels using an L293D motor driver IC. It receives Bluetooth commands and controls the motors accordingly to move the robot forward, backward, left or right.
Material handling (MH) makes use of the robot's simple capability to transport objects. By fitting the robot with an appropriate end of arm tool (e.g. gripper), the robot can efficiently and accurately move product from one location to another.
Robot is a Machine designed to execute one or more tasks automatically by means of variable programmed motions with high speed and precision.
The document provides details about an industrial training report for a civil engineering student at Simplex Infrastructures Ltd. It summarizes a residential project called Hiranandini Lake Verandahs that Simplex is constructing. Key details include the location of the project, specifications of the 27-floor towers including number of flats and amenities, and descriptions of the construction processes for laying building slabs and columns. Photos supplement the summaries of construction steps.
This document is a project report submitted to Amity University Rajasthan for the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electronics and Communication Engineering. The report contains 4 chapters that discuss microstrip antenna basics, modified patch microstrip antennas for modern communication systems, modified patch antennas for geometry, and conclusions. The chapters review previous work, describe simple and slotted patch antenna designs, and discuss observations and the scope for future work on modified patch antennas.
The document provides details about Shani Kumar Singh's 6-week internship at the Rail Wheel Plant in Bela, Bihar. It includes a description of the plant's facilities and wheel manufacturing process. The plant uses electric arc furnaces to melt scrap steel, which is then poured into molds to form cast wheels. Different shops support activities like mold repair, final processing of wheels, and maintenance. The internship report provides technical details to give insight into the plant's operations.
1) The document discusses various topics related to robotics including definitions, degrees of freedom, robot arm and wrist configurations, joint classifications, robot safety, components and control systems.
2) It provides details on common robot arm configurations including rectangular, cylindrical, spherical and revolute coordinated systems.
3) The document also describes robot control systems including limited sequence control, playback with point-to-point control and continuous path control as well as intelligent control.
The document describes a proposed automated wireless meter reading system. It would consist of meter reading retrieval units with microcontrollers and Zigbee transceivers attached to electricity meters. A wireless personal area network using Zigbee would transfer meter readings to a handheld device. This would allow readings to be collected remotely without manual inspection, reducing costs and errors. Digital meters would measure voltage, current and power consumption. Readings would be sent via Zigbee and stored on the handheld device for later transfer to a computer database. The system aims to make meter reading easier, more accurate and help utilities better manage electricity distribution.
Summer Training Report for Diploma (mechanical) StudentsKashifRaza113
This Training is completed at UPSRTC (Lucknow) by a student of polytechnic(mechanical) from Integral University Lucknow. UPSRTC is a Government Organisation for Public Transport in Uttar Pradesh.
This document summarizes a student project report on the design of a portable press machine. A group of 4 mechanical engineering students at Gujarat Technological University conducted the project during their 4th semester in 2017-2018 under the guidance of their professor. The project involved reverse engineering an existing press, identifying user needs through various canvassing techniques, researching prior designs of presses, and developing a conceptual prototype for a portable press. The report documents each stage of the design process and aims to fulfill the learning requirements for the students' Design Engineering course.
This document describes the design of a plastic solar water heater. It includes design considerations, calculations, comparisons to conventional solar water heaters, and cost estimations. The key features of the plastic solar water heater are that it uses inexpensive materials like plastic bottles, PEX pipes, and coconut coir insulation. It is estimated to cost 50% less than conventional solar water heaters while achieving similar maximum water temperatures. The design aims to provide a low-cost option for solar hot water.
This document summarizes a student project to design and fabricate a brimmed diffuser for a wind turbine. The brimmed diffuser is intended to increase the efficiency and power output of the wind turbine. The design of the brimmed diffuser is presented, including dimensions calculated based on the turbine diameter. Testing showed that the brimmed diffuser increased wind velocity and the power output of the turbine. The project demonstrates the potential for brimmed diffusers to improve wind turbine performance and power generation.
The document discusses two-stroke and four-stroke internal combustion engines. It provides details on the working principles of two-stroke petrol and diesel engines. A two-stroke engine completes the processes of intake, compression, combustion and exhaust in two strokes of the piston rather than four strokes as in a four-stroke engine. This allows a two-stroke engine to produce power during every revolution of the crankshaft.
This document discusses different types of rotary compressors used to compress air or gas. It describes positive displacement and roto dynamic rotary compressors. It then provides details on the construction and working of rotary lobe compressors, rotary vane compressors, rotary screw compressors, and scroll compressors. For each type, it outlines the key components and explains how compression is achieved as the gas is drawn in and compressed spaces are reduced in size.
Aerodynamic Drag Reduction for Ground Vehicles using Lateral Guide Vanes Mohamed Shahin
This document is the final report for an engineering design project aimed at reducing aerodynamic drag on sport utility vehicles using side guide vanes. A team of four students conducted simulations and experiments to test designs for side guide vanes on a scale model of a Hummer H2. In the second phase of the project, the team finalized their design, manufactured guide vanes out of plexiglass, attached them to the model using connecting plates, and tested the prototype in a wind tunnel. The simulations predicted a 15% reduction in drag coefficient with the guide vanes, while experimental testing yielded a 9% reduction, within 4% of the numerical results.
This project aims to design a Bluetooth controlled robot car that can be controlled using an Android phone or laptop. An Atmega8 microcontroller is used for serial communication via a Bluetooth HC-05 module using embedded C programming. The HC-05 module allows wireless Bluetooth control of the robot car from a phone or laptop. An L293D motor driver is used to control the motors based on commands received over Bluetooth from the Android device.
Automatic Irrigation System Project ReportEr Gupta
The project implements an automatic irrigation system using soil moisture sensors. Sensors in each agricultural field detect the humidity level in the soil and send signals to a microcontroller. If a field's soil becomes dry, the sensor sends a signal to the microcontroller which then supplies water to that field until the soil moisture level increases again. The system aims to reduce water usage through automated irrigation only when needed.
Hydraulic actuators convert hydraulic energy into mechanical motion and come in two types: linear actuators, which produce linear motion, and rotary actuators, which produce rotational motion. Linear actuators include single acting cylinders, double acting cylinders, and double rod cylinders. Rotary actuators include rotary vane actuators and rack and pinion actuators, which can be single or double cylinder designs.
The document provides details about an industrial training report completed by two interns at Hardrock Attachments Pvt. Ltd., a manufacturer of fabricated structures for construction machinery. The report describes the company's plant layout, manufacturing processes, machinery, quality systems, products, and maintenance procedures. It aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the heavy fabrication and machining industry for educational purposes.
This document provides the format and structure for a term paper on the game Tic Tac Toe. It includes sections for the title page, table of contents, introduction, proposed system description and requirements, requirement analysis, system design, source code, testing, and future scope. It describes the problem statement, functions to be provided by the system, and system requirements. It also includes sample source code for the game and descriptions of the requirement analysis and system design processes. The overall summary provides an outline and overview of the contents and organization of the term paper project on developing a Tic Tac Toe game.
Valve timing diagram is one of the most important topic about engine. This gives u the idea about how engine's valves should open and close. Knowing this u can make your engine more efficient and effective.
Hydraulic Intensifier ( Pressure raising device ) Umar Saeed
Through this presentation you will know about the how Hydraulic Intensifier works, its working principle and its components. This presentation also covers its animation through which you easily understand its function.
This document describes how to build a Bluetooth controlled robot using an Arduino Uno board. The robot uses an HC-05 Bluetooth module to receive control commands from a mobile phone or PC app over Bluetooth. The Arduino controls two DC motors connected to wheels using an L293D motor driver IC. It receives Bluetooth commands and controls the motors accordingly to move the robot forward, backward, left or right.
Material handling (MH) makes use of the robot's simple capability to transport objects. By fitting the robot with an appropriate end of arm tool (e.g. gripper), the robot can efficiently and accurately move product from one location to another.
Robot is a Machine designed to execute one or more tasks automatically by means of variable programmed motions with high speed and precision.
The document provides details about an industrial training report for a civil engineering student at Simplex Infrastructures Ltd. It summarizes a residential project called Hiranandini Lake Verandahs that Simplex is constructing. Key details include the location of the project, specifications of the 27-floor towers including number of flats and amenities, and descriptions of the construction processes for laying building slabs and columns. Photos supplement the summaries of construction steps.
This document is a project report submitted to Amity University Rajasthan for the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electronics and Communication Engineering. The report contains 4 chapters that discuss microstrip antenna basics, modified patch microstrip antennas for modern communication systems, modified patch antennas for geometry, and conclusions. The chapters review previous work, describe simple and slotted patch antenna designs, and discuss observations and the scope for future work on modified patch antennas.
Grasim Industries Ltd. is one of India's largest companies established in 1947. It started as a textile manufacturer and has since diversified into various industries including viscose staple fiber, cement, chemicals, and textiles. The company owns manufacturing facilities in India and various countries around the world. Its core businesses are viscose staple fiber and cement which contribute over 90% of its revenues. The company has an engineering division that manufactures plant and machinery used in its viscose staple fiber production and exports these internationally. Key departments in the engineering division include project planning, fabrication, machine shop, assembly, and quality control. The document provides an overview of Grasim Industries' history and operations.
Report on Industrial Training at Indian Ordnance FactoryAkash Bisariya
This document provides information about Akash Shankar Bisariya's 6-week internship at the Ordnance Clothing Factory in Shahjahanpur, India. It includes details about the factory's history and products, organizational structure, policies, and sections like HRD, training, and the Information Technology Center. The IT Center manages various computerized systems like the Production Planning and Control package, electronic attendance recording, communications network, and others to handle factory information processing and administration. Akash completed his internship focusing on the "PIS (Personal Information System) Module in Php" under the guidance of supervisors.
The Control Panel document provides an overview of the Control Panel in Windows and describes its various applets. The Control Panel is a centralized location for system management utilities. It contains applets divided into categories for tasks like hardware/sound configuration, user account management, network settings, security options, and more. Each applet allows adjusting specific settings related to its category area.
This document provides an overview of programmable logic controllers (PLCs). It defines a PLC as a digital computer used for industrial control systems. The document outlines the history of PLCs, their major components including the processor, power supply, and I/O modules. It describes the operational sequence of a PLC including input scan, logic solve, and output scan. Programming methods like ladder logic and functional block diagrams are discussed. Examples are provided of ladder logic programs for starting and stopping a motor. Advantages of PLCs include reliability, flexibility, and cost effectiveness. The document concludes by listing some common industrial applications of PLCs.
This document describes an automatic pneumatic controlled door and closing system using a programmable logic controller (PLC). A group of six students submitted the project to fulfill their diploma requirements. The system uses a double acting cylinder and 5/2 way solenoid valve controlled by an infrared sensor to automatically open and close a door. When an object is detected by the infrared sensor, it activates the solenoid valve which operates the cylinder to open the door.
The document discusses the importance of developing good work relationships, which is essential for building a successful career. It states that communication competence, or the ability to develop and sustain relationships at work, is important for career success as it helps build better relationships and connections. The document then provides five strategies for developing work relationships: initiating relationships by finding common ground, showing respect, being cautious about personal disclosures, avoiding controversial topics, and being open to criticism. Building interpersonal relationships at work through these five strategies is key to career success.
cover page on industrial training on dlwSanjay Yadav
This 3 sentence industrial training report summarizes Sanjay Yadav's internship at Diesel Locomotive Works in Varanasi from July to December 2015 in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Bachelor of Technology degree in Mechanical Engineering from Buddha Institute of Technology, GIDA, Gorakhpur.
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Ram niwas's training on indian rail way for download go to blog http://nowcra...Ram Niwas Bajiya
Ram Niwas Bajya completed a summer training report on the North-Western Indian Railways at the Supervisor Training Centre in Ajmer. The report discusses the PRS and UTS networks used for passenger reservation and ticketing on the railways. It provides an overview of the implementation and architecture of the CONCERT application used for computerized reservation across multiple host systems connected through data links. The report also examines the benefits of the PRS system for both passengers and the railways.
This document is an industrial training report submitted by Aditya Nagarwal to the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering at HMR Institute of Technology and Management. It details a 6-week internship completed at Elin Electronics Limited, where Nagarwal learned about the company's operations, products, and manufacturing processes. Elin Electronics produces LED lamps, compact fluorescent lamps, electronic ballasts, and other electronics components. The report provides an overview of the company, descriptions of its key products, and technical details about LED lighting, CFLs, and electronic ballasts. It evaluates the performance, applications, and manufacturing of these products.
This document provides a training report from an internship at Rajghat Power House. It includes an acknowledgements section thanking those who supported the training. It also includes a preface describing how practical experience is important for engineering students to develop hands-on knowledge. The bulk of the document consists of sections on power plant basics, control and instrumentation, and conclusions from the learning experience. It aims to impart knowledge of fundamentals and applications gained during the industrial training placement.
This document discusses industrial automation applications of pneumatics and PLC systems. It lists the main industrial fields that utilize these technologies, including automotive, cement, food, pharmaceutical, infrastructure, machine, and chemical industries. It also outlines the typical automation applications involved, such as engineering design, assembly, installation, PLC programming, and visualization. Several example applications and client references are provided, including pneumatic test benches for automotive companies and machine modernization projects for various industrial manufacturers.
The document summarizes a site visit report for a construction project building concrete framed terrace houses. Key points:
- The site visit allowed observation of construction processes, materials, and safety practices for a concrete framed building project.
- The project uses pile foundations, concrete columns and beams, non-suspended ground floors, and suspended upper floors.
- Materials observed included formwork, reinforcement bars, concrete, and starter bars connecting structures.
- The site visit provided valuable practical experience of construction techniques complementing classroom learning.
This site visit report summarizes a visit by students to an ongoing semi-detached house construction project. The report describes the objectives of the visit which were to understand construction processes, materials, and safety practices. It then provides details on the construction of pad footings including the excavation process, formwork installation, reinforcement bar placement, and concrete pouring. Photos from the site illustrate various stages of pad footing and structural frame construction. The report concludes that the site visit helped provide practical knowledge and preparation for future construction-related career roles.
Research on customers - Aditya Birla Retail Ltd (more.)Gigo George
The Aditya Birla Group is a $35 billion corporation with over 133,000 employees across 42 nationalities. It operates in 36 countries across sectors like metals, cement, chemicals, retail, telecom, and financial services. Over 60% of its revenues come from international operations. In India, it is a top player in sectors like viscose filament yarn, chlor-alkali, mobile telephony, life insurance, BPO, and fashion. Globally it is a leader in metals, viscose staple fibre, carbon black, insulators, acrylic fibre, cement, fertilizers, and retail. The group entered retail in 2006 and operates stores under the brands 'More' and 'More
1. The document provides precautions and information for operating a car audio/video system.
2. It warns that moisture may form on discs or the player when switching on the heater in a cold car, which could impact playback. It also warns that bumpy roads may cause sound to skip.
3. The document advises not to open the case or disassemble the unit, as it uses precision mechanisms. It provides additional information on TV and digital radio functions and operations.
Dukane proudly offers a full line of data-video projectors, document cameras, visual presenters, interactive products, screens, voice amplification systems, speaker systems, technology carts, security systems, accessories and more.
Dukane is an American company serving the education, corporate, government and house of worship markets for over 85 years.
For more information contact:
Delia Valdez
Dukane Customer Service Representative
Phone: 800-676-2485
Fax: (630) 584-5156
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Dukane AV
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Info on Dukane’s Classroom/Audience Response system can be found at :
Convey Website: www.conveyclassrooms.com
This document provides a user's manual for a projector model 8950P/8951P/8952P. It begins with safety warnings and lists the included contents. It then describes the main parts of the projector like the control panel, rear panel, and remote control. The bulk of the manual provides setup instructions and explains how to operate the projector menus and features, including making adjustments, switching inputs, using the lens, magnifying the image, and more. It concludes with maintenance instructions, troubleshooting tips, and specifications.
This user's manual provides instructions for operating a projector, including identifying its main parts like the control panel, rear panel, and remote control. It describes how to set up the projector by connecting devices and arranging it properly. The manual also explains how to use the projector's various functions through its control panel, remote control, and on-screen menus.
Diploma Final Year Project,
Title : CD-ROM CNC Plotter
College : Agnel Polytechnic , Vashi, Navi Mumbai
Year : 2016-2017,
Course : Mechanical Engineering
Group Members : 4
Rahul Sharma completed a six-week industrial training at Delux Foundary, a lathe machine manufacturing company established in 1969. During his training, Rahul learned about the design, production, assembly, installation, and maintenance of lathe machines. He observed the casting and manufacturing processes, calculated machine dimensions, and gained knowledge of technical specifications. Rahul also learned about safety procedures and inspection reports. The training provided Rahul with valuable practical experience that will help in his future career.
The document describes the KOLIDA KTS-440RC total station. It provides details about its features such as 30x magnification telescope, dual-axis compensator, SD card storage, laser plummet, and mini USB communication port. It also explains how to operate the total station, including preparing for measurement, taking angle, distance, and coordinate measurements, and using it for advanced surveying tasks like setting out points, angle offset, distance offset and dual distance offset measurements.
This project presentation mainly based on waste separation based on the dry and wet by using electronic gadget .
Rapidly growing solid waste like pieces of glass, paper, metallic materials and wet wastes etc.,
we explain about the separation of various waste and usage of the waste by the process of recycling
Thông số kỹ thuật của quạt làm mát tủ điện SUNON, Catalogue Quạt làm mát tủ điện SUNON, Catalogue quạt hướng trục SUNON, Brushless fan & Blower SUNON Catalogue
The document describes a project to automate the unloading of deep freezers from a conveyor belt using a lifter. Currently, the process requires manual operation but the project aims to design an automatic lifter controlled by sensors and an Arduino. It details the current manual process and proposed automatic system, lists components, provides diagrams of the system design and circuit, and explains the Arduino code used to control operation through sensor input. The automation is expected to increase production efficiency and throughput while improving safety.
Manufacturimg of comressor blade presentation 4 - copyanup sharma
The document discusses the manufacturing process of compressor blades. Compressor blades are used in aircraft propulsion systems and power stations. The process begins with selecting stainless steel as the raw material. The steel is cut to size and then milled and surface ground to shape. CNC machining is used to further refine the shape. Quality control checks the dimensions before polishing and packing. Compressor blades extract energy from high pressure gas and must withstand high stresses and loads during operation in propulsion and power generation systems.
This document is Sanyo Airconditioners Europe's 2006 general catalogue. It provides a brief history of Sanyo's air conditioning products, starting with their first window unit in 1958. It describes Sanyo's vision of "Think GAIA" to become a global solutions provider focused on sustainability. The catalogue includes specifications for Sanyo's residential and light-commercial air conditioning and heat pump products, along with their VRF, hydronic, and control systems.
The device like a semi automatic or robotic machine and the movements of the links are operated by the pneumatic system. It is a device which works in a pneumatic system, used to transfer the object from one place to another place.by picking vacuum is used.
This document provides instructions for safely setting up and operating an AV receiver. It includes:
1. Important safety notes about avoiding electric shock from water or humidity, proper ventilation, using the correct voltage, and keeping small objects and liquids away from the device.
2. An overview of the control buttons and connection ports on the receiver and remote control.
3. Instructions for connecting speakers, audio/video devices, and antennas.
4. Guidance on selecting inputs, adjusting volume and settings, using radio functions, and troubleshooting issues.
INTEGRATION OF WATER CHILLER AND AIR COOLERIRJET Journal
This document discusses the integration of a water chiller and air cooler unit using a single vapor compression refrigeration system. A T-joint with a split valve is used to direct refrigerant to the two evaporators. An Arduino controls the split valve position based on temperature sensors to allocate more refrigerant to the water chiller or air cooler as needed. Computational fluid dynamics analysis shows the pressure and velocity of refrigerant flowing through the T-joint with minimal pressure drop. Integrating the units could reduce costs compared to separate systems and be useful for applications like bus stations.
Ball following Robot using ESP32-cam & Arduino UNOIRJET Journal
1) The document describes a ball following robot that uses an ESP32-cam and Arduino UNO microcontroller. 2) Key components of the robot include IR sensors to detect the ball, an L293D motor driver to control the DC motors that power the wheels, and an ESP32-cam that processes camera images to track the ball's movement. 3) The robot is designed to autonomously follow and track a ball similar to a human player in a game like soccer, for purposes of entertainment, research, and studying human-robot interaction.
This document provides installation, operation, and maintenance instructions for Daikin Trailblazer air-cooled scroll chiller models. It includes information on handling and placement of the units, required service clearances, operating limits, refrigerant schematics, dimensions and weights, electrical and control data, startup and shutdown procedures, maintenance, and troubleshooting. The manual aims to ensure the chillers are properly installed and can be safely and efficiently operated.
Six sigma - dmr tilt table - matthew huntMatthew Hunt
This document describes a problem solving project to improve the DMR tilt tables used in the Kansas City Integrated Stamping Plant. The project team designed and built new tilt tables that allow 360 degree rotation and multiple tilt positions for optimal part positioning. This will improve ergonomics and reduce nonconforming parts. The document also details analyses and improvements made to inspection processes, die changeover capabilities, press automation, and adding error proofing at the die shop to control quality.
This document provides installation, start-up and service instructions for liquid chillers. It describes safety considerations that must be followed when working on the equipment. The document outlines 5 steps for installation, which include rigging and placing the unit, checking compressor mounting, making cooler fluid and drain piping connections, making electrical connections, and installing accessories. It also provides information on pre-start-up checks, start-up procedures, operation, service diagnostics, and a start-up checklist.
1. This document provides operating instructions for the Panasonic Multi-Function Printer KX-MB2000/KX-MB2010/KX-MB2030.
2. It describes how to install supplies like the toner cartridge and drum cartridge, and how to set up the printer by connecting it to a computer and configuring network settings.
3. The document also provides instructions for using the printer's copy, scan, fax and other functions, how to troubleshoot issues, and contains other important safety, legal and technical information.
The presentation discusses personality development and provides advice on various topics. It contains 14 sections with motivational messages. Some of the key points discussed are: do not compare yourself to others as it is insulting; God provides solutions to problems; accept pain to find success; it is easier to recognize others' mistakes than your own; do not worry about problems that cannot be solved; and facing change can transform your life more than complaining about others. The presentation encourages positivity and perseverance.
A Report on State MachinesTiming Behavior and Data storage in hard disk driveRohit Singh
This document describes about the timing behavior of digital design and also describes about the working of Hard Disk. How data is stored on hard disk.
This document presents an implementation of the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm. It begins with an introduction to FFTs, explaining that they can compute the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) much more efficiently than direct evaluation, reducing the computation time from O(N^2) to O(N log N). It then describes the basic butterfly structures used in FFTs and shows how to implement 16-point FFT blocks. The document includes MATLAB code for an 8-point DFT and FFT, as well as VHDL code for a 16-point FFT processor. It provides details on decimation-in-time and decimation-in-frequency algorithms and how they recursively break down the DFT into smaller transforms
A microprocessor-compatible quadrature decoder/counter is used to interface an optical shaft encoder (OSE) to a microprocessor's system bus. Quadrature decoder/counter find application in digital data input subsystems and digital closed loop motion control systems.
The document provides an overview of photonic light sources, specifically LEDs and lasers. It discusses:
1) How LEDs work by emitting photons when electrons fall from a higher to lower energy level within a semiconductor, causing light. The color depends on the energy level difference.
2) The principle of lasers, which involves stimulating emission of radiation to achieve population inversion and optical gain, allowing for amplification of photons within the laser medium.
3) How a laser diode works by achieving population inversion through forward biasing of a p-n junction, allowing stimulated emission and optical feedback via mirrors to produce coherent, collimated light amplification.
M.Tech Voltage Reference Thesis PresentationRohit Singh
The document summarizes the design and performance evaluation of sub-1V voltage reference generators at a 45nm CMOS technology node. It discusses two designs - one based on cancelling the temperature dependence of a CTAT current with a PTAT current, and the other based on utilizing the threshold voltage difference between high and low threshold voltage transistors. Both designs are analyzed theoretically and through simulation. The CTAT-PTAT design achieves a temperature coefficient of 19ppm/C and line sensitivity of 0.93%/V. The VTH-based design has a temperature coefficient of 16ppm/C and line sensitivity of 0.53%/V. Both designs demonstrate good power supply rejection ratios and meet the objectives of
This document discusses a project report submitted for a Bachelor of Technology degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering. It includes an introduction outlining the project overview on real-time speaker recognition, methodology using feature extraction and clustering algorithms, and background on identification including speech production and digital signal processing fundamentals.
A review on techniques and modelling methodologies used for checking electrom...nooriasukmaningtyas
The proper function of the integrated circuit (IC) in an inhibiting electromagnetic environment has always been a serious concern throughout the decades of revolution in the world of electronics, from disjunct devices to today’s integrated circuit technology, where billions of transistors are combined on a single chip. The automotive industry and smart vehicles in particular, are confronting design issues such as being prone to electromagnetic interference (EMI). Electronic control devices calculate incorrect outputs because of EMI and sensors give misleading values which can prove fatal in case of automotives. In this paper, the authors have non exhaustively tried to review research work concerned with the investigation of EMI in ICs and prediction of this EMI using various modelling methodologies and measurement setups.
Electric vehicle and photovoltaic advanced roles in enhancing the financial p...IJECEIAES
Climate change's impact on the planet forced the United Nations and governments to promote green energies and electric transportation. The deployments of photovoltaic (PV) and electric vehicle (EV) systems gained stronger momentum due to their numerous advantages over fossil fuel types. The advantages go beyond sustainability to reach financial support and stability. The work in this paper introduces the hybrid system between PV and EV to support industrial and commercial plants. This paper covers the theoretical framework of the proposed hybrid system including the required equation to complete the cost analysis when PV and EV are present. In addition, the proposed design diagram which sets the priorities and requirements of the system is presented. The proposed approach allows setup to advance their power stability, especially during power outages. The presented information supports researchers and plant owners to complete the necessary analysis while promoting the deployment of clean energy. The result of a case study that represents a dairy milk farmer supports the theoretical works and highlights its advanced benefits to existing plants. The short return on investment of the proposed approach supports the paper's novelty approach for the sustainable electrical system. In addition, the proposed system allows for an isolated power setup without the need for a transmission line which enhances the safety of the electrical network
Understanding Inductive Bias in Machine LearningSUTEJAS
This presentation explores the concept of inductive bias in machine learning. It explains how algorithms come with built-in assumptions and preferences that guide the learning process. You'll learn about the different types of inductive bias and how they can impact the performance and generalizability of machine learning models.
The presentation also covers the positive and negative aspects of inductive bias, along with strategies for mitigating potential drawbacks. We'll explore examples of how bias manifests in algorithms like neural networks and decision trees.
By understanding inductive bias, you can gain valuable insights into how machine learning models work and make informed decisions when building and deploying them.
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024)ClaraZara1
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024) will provide an excellent international forum for sharing knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of on Machine Learning & Applications.
We have compiled the most important slides from each speaker's presentation. This year’s compilation, available for free, captures the key insights and contributions shared during the DfMAy 2024 conference.
A SYSTEMATIC RISK ASSESSMENT APPROACH FOR SECURING THE SMART IRRIGATION SYSTEMSIJNSA Journal
The smart irrigation system represents an innovative approach to optimize water usage in agricultural and landscaping practices. The integration of cutting-edge technologies, including sensors, actuators, and data analysis, empowers this system to provide accurate monitoring and control of irrigation processes by leveraging real-time environmental conditions. The main objective of a smart irrigation system is to optimize water efficiency, minimize expenses, and foster the adoption of sustainable water management methods. This paper conducts a systematic risk assessment by exploring the key components/assets and their functionalities in the smart irrigation system. The crucial role of sensors in gathering data on soil moisture, weather patterns, and plant well-being is emphasized in this system. These sensors enable intelligent decision-making in irrigation scheduling and water distribution, leading to enhanced water efficiency and sustainable water management practices. Actuators enable automated control of irrigation devices, ensuring precise and targeted water delivery to plants. Additionally, the paper addresses the potential threat and vulnerabilities associated with smart irrigation systems. It discusses limitations of the system, such as power constraints and computational capabilities, and calculates the potential security risks. The paper suggests possible risk treatment methods for effective secure system operation. In conclusion, the paper emphasizes the significant benefits of implementing smart irrigation systems, including improved water conservation, increased crop yield, and reduced environmental impact. Additionally, based on the security analysis conducted, the paper recommends the implementation of countermeasures and security approaches to address vulnerabilities and ensure the integrity and reliability of the system. By incorporating these measures, smart irrigation technology can revolutionize water management practices in agriculture, promoting sustainability, resource efficiency, and safeguarding against potential security threats.
Low power architecture of logic gates using adiabatic techniquesnooriasukmaningtyas
The growing significance of portable systems to limit power consumption in ultra-large-scale-integration chips of very high density, has recently led to rapid and inventive progresses in low-power design. The most effective technique is adiabatic logic circuit design in energy-efficient hardware. This paper presents two adiabatic approaches for the design of low power circuits, modified positive feedback adiabatic logic (modified PFAL) and the other is direct current diode based positive feedback adiabatic logic (DC-DB PFAL). Logic gates are the preliminary components in any digital circuit design. By improving the performance of basic gates, one can improvise the whole system performance. In this paper proposed circuit design of the low power architecture of OR/NOR, AND/NAND, and XOR/XNOR gates are presented using the said approaches and their results are analyzed for powerdissipation, delay, power-delay-product and rise time and compared with the other adiabatic techniques along with the conventional complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) designs reported in the literature. It has been found that the designs with DC-DB PFAL technique outperform with the percentage improvement of 65% for NOR gate and 7% for NAND gate and 34% for XNOR gate over the modified PFAL techniques at 10 MHz respectively.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
1. Babu Banarsi Das Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad
INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT ON
Automation using PLC
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE
DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF DEGREE
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
SUBMITTED BY
Rohit Singh
B.Tech VI SEMESTER
0803531072
(2008-12)
Training taken under
Moserbaer, A-164, Sector-80
Phase –II, Noida,
G.B Nagar, India
JULY 2011
2. AUTOMATION USING PLC
Submitted by
Rohit Singh
0803531072
Under the Guidance of
Vikas Goyal
&
Anil Nagar
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Babu Banarsi Das Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad
3. DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project work entitle (“Automation using PLC”) is an authentic
record of my own work carried out at MOSERBAER, PHASE- II, NOIDA as
requirement of six weeks project for the award of degree of B.Tech in Electronics &
Communication Engineering, Babu Banarsi Das Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad,
Under the guidance of Mr. Vikas Goyal & Anil Nagar (Industry coordinator), during 15
June to 27 July 2011.
Rohit Singh
0803531072
27 July, 2011
It is certified that the above statement made by the student is correct to the
best of our knowledge and belief.
Mr. Vikas Goyal
(Industry Coordinator)
Mr. Anil Nagar
(Industry coordinator)
4. CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION OF MOSERBAER
2. COMPACT DISC
3. STEPS INVOLVED IN CD MANUFACTURING
4. PNEUMATIC CYLINDER
5. SENSORS
6. PLC
5. 1. INTRODUCTION OF MOSER BAER
Moser Baer, headquartered in New Delhi, is one of India's leading technology companies.
Established in 1983, Moser Baer successfully developed cutting edge technologies to
become the world's second largest manufacturer of Optical Storage media like CDs and
DVDs. The company also emerged as the first to market the next-generation of storage
formats like Blue-ray Discs and HD DVD. Recently, the company has transformed itself
from a single business into a multi-technology organization, diversifying into exciting
areas of Solar Energy, Home Entertainment and IT Peripherals & Consumer Electronics.
Moser Baer has a presence in over 82 countries, serviced through six marketing offices in
India, the US, Europe and Japan, and has strong tie-ups with all major global technology
players.
Moser Baer has the distinction of being preferred supplier to all top global OEM brands.
Moser Baer stands committed to supplying highest quality fully licensed media to its
customers.
Moser Baer's products are manufactured at its three state-of-the-art manufacturing
facilities. It has over 6,000 full-time employees and multiple manufacturing facilities in
the suburbs of New Delhi.
6. 2. COMPACT DISC
A Compact Disc (also known as a CD) is an optical disc used to store digital data. It was
originally developed to store sound recordings exclusively, but later it also allowed the
preservation of other types of data. Audio CDs have been commercially available since
October 1982.
HISTORY OF THE COMPACT DISC:
Figure 1
Starting in the mid 1980's, compact discs (CD) began to take over both the audio and
computer program market. Much of this can be attributed to a general acceptance of
certain specifications regarding compact discs, known as the "Color Books." Originally
designed and developed by both Sony and Phillips, the concept of the Color Books was
patented and standards were developed. These are a collection of five books that describe
the specifications and standards CD technology follows. This led eventually to the
current audio CD technology.
7. TYPES OF CD:
There are three main types: standard manufactured CDs (CD-DA), CD-R recordable and
CD-RW rewriteable.
Standard manufactured CDs can be played on any CD digital audio player.
CD-Rs can be played on CD-R machines and many but not all CD digital audio
players.
CD-RWs can only be played on CD-RW compatible machines.
Both writeable types can be burned to play in audio machines and PCs.
8. 3. STEPS INVOLVED IN CD MANUFACTURING
THE COMPLETE PROCESS FROM COLER BUFFER TO RECEIVER HANDLER
1. Moulder handler: handling over the freshly moulded discs to the cooler.
▼
2. Moulder take over handling: transporting the discs from the moulder to the
handover point.
▼
3. Sample handler: transporting discs from the sampler position to the sample out feed
position.
▼
4. Distributor handler: handling the discs from the inter handler to the sampler
handler.
9. ▼
5. Cooler indexing table: moving the discs from the in feed position to the handler
position towards the cooler.
▼
6. Conveyor cooler: cooling the hot discs coming from the moulder.
▼
7. Buffers: in case the material flow piles up at the areas behind.
▼
8. NSK pick and place handler: moving the discs between conveyors cooler, buffer
and dye-coating.
▼
9. Dye coating: coating the discs coming from the coolers with the data carrying
dye.
▼
10. Bottom edge washing process stations: removing the dye hump from the outer
edge of the discs by dissolving via solvent.
▼
11. quality control: marking the dye coated discs via ink jet printer . It is done by
scanners buffering of good discs and batching of bad discs.
▼
12. Dye inspection: 1. scanning the discs for faulty coating.
10. ▼
13. Out feed handler: handling the discs between the output handler of the indexing
unit and the reject spindle.
▼
14. Disc lift: lifting the discs batch being on the spindle up to working position.
▼
15. Hot air dryer: drying the discs coming from the dye cooler.
▼
16. Sputter: metalizing the discs. The sputter is a separate unit with a control of its
own.
▼
17. Solvent top edge cleaning: removing the dye hump from the outer edge of the
discs by dissolving with the solvent
▼
18. Solvent media supply system
▼
19. U V lacquering and drying: coating the sputtered and cleaned discs with a
transparent UV coating protective layer.
▼
20. 2-arm NSK process handler
11. ▼
21. Final inspection and receiver: inspecting the manufactured discs for overall
quality.
▼
22. Receiver handler: handling the discs from the UV o/p from the final scanner to the
spindle.
▼
23. Receiver/ Reject unit: malfunctioning may occur using wrong spindles.
▼
24. Rotary indexing unit, Pneumatically: the step wise rotation movement is initiated
by a pneumatic control pulse and varies automatically until reaching the next stop
position.
12. SEQUENCE OF OPREATION OF A ROBOTIC ARM
STEP FUNCTION COMPPONENT
USED
MOTION
1. First arm waits for CD to
be free
-------------- At rest
2. Arm moved to get hold of
CD-R
Motor Rotary motion
3. Suction cup moves to pick
the CD-R
Pneumatic linear
cylinder
Linear motion
4. Then arm picks the CD-R Vacuum technique Grasping a CD
5. Arm again comes to the
initial position
Motor Rotary motion
6. Arm again comes to final
position to transfer the CD-
R
Pneumatic rotary
cylinder
Rotary motion
7. CD-R is placed at the disc
putting place to be carried
by the second arm
Vacuum technique Leaving the disc
8. Second arm senses if CD-R
is free to be carried from
that place
Sensors --------------
9. Second arm carries CD-R
to place it on the conveyor
belt.
Step 1-8 Step 1-8
13. PROCESS INFEED COOLER:
Taking over discs offered by the three moulders cooling and feeding them to the dye
process unit, extraction of the production samples directly from the moulder unit
MOULDER HANDLER:
Handling over the freshly moulded discs to the cooler.
Functions :
Arm drive is actuated and swivels the gripper arm from the safety position to the
end position at the moulder, pneumatic cylinder of the gripper head is actuated
and turns the gripper head so that the freshly mounted discs can be sucked.
Moulder opens and takes the blank discs off the moulder and holds it such that the
blank discs can be sucked.
Vacuum is switched ON, the moulder handler releases the disc and retracts.
The pneumatic cylinder of the gripper head is reversely actuated such that disc is
lying horizontally.
When arm reaches the next station the disc is released and now the disc is lying in
the deposit ends of the next station.
Handler swivels back to the actual position.
The reference points and the safety areas are detected.
MOULDER TAKE OVER HANDLING:
Deposits the discs on the sucker of the take over handler and retracts.
Lift moves the handler up. The overhead drive swings the handler arm to the outer
end position.
The lift lowers the handler, thus the discs is deposited on the deposit fork.
The lift moves up and the handler arm swings back to take the next disc.
The deposit fork is swung to the handover position towards the distributors
handler.
14. SAMPLER HANDLER:
The pneumatic turns the cylinder with the turn axis, mechanical stops, shock
absorbers at the turn axis and position sensors.
The handler arm with the sucker at the turn axis.
Functions:
Distributor handler deposits a disc on the deposit pin of the sampler handler.
The swivel arm swings to the out feed position and offers the disc to the
operation.
The end positions of the pneumatic drives are monitored by the sensors.
DISTRIBUTOR HANDLER:
Handling the discs from the inter handling to the sampler handler or distributing the discs
to the cooler indexing table.
COOLER INDEXING TABLE:
Moving the discs from the in feed position to the handler position towards the cooler.
Indexing unit: stepping-in-circle of the depositing spider.
CONVEYOR COOLER:
Cooling the hot discs coming from the molders.
Discs are loaded, where they can cool down while the conveyor is stepping to the end of
the track.
Conveyor track: Transporting and holding the discs while cooling.
Conveyor drive: The conveyor belt system is moved by a geared motor. An angle
gear transmits the motor rotation to the output drive tooth pulley which is in
permanent contact with the drive shaft of the distributor gear.
15. Conveyor loading/unloading handler: Mounted at the end points of the conveyor
track. Ht e handler consists of vertical pneumatic slides at which the pneumatic
turn drive is mounted. On the turn axis of the drive the vacuums sucker for
holding the discs.
BUFFERS:
It delivers discs in case the material flow piles up at the areas behind.
Re feeds the stored discs to the material flow.
Buffering indexing table: stepwise rotation is initiated by the pneumatic control
pulse and runs automatically until reaching the next stop position.
Disc lift: lifting the discs batch on the spindle into the working position.
This position is detected as that height as which the upper most discs is detected
by the disc sensor.
DYE COATING:
Coating the discs coming from the coolers with the data carrying dye.
Processing is performed in 5 processing stations. Discs are moved through process area
by a conveyor transport system.
1. Conveyor transport system
2. 5 process handler
3. 5 Dye coating and bottom edge cleaning process.
Functions:
Motor drives the angular gear which moves the conveyor tooth belt.
When the rest pin on the belt reaches the light barrier at the process station, the
motion is stopped so that the process handler can pick and place discs from the
pin.
16. SENSOR ICS:
Stop position for the belt is determined by the light barriers at the in feed position.
Presence of discs is monitored by the reflective light barriers at the in feed / out feed
position and the coater handler position.
PROCESS HANDLERS:
Loading/ unloading discs of the dye coating process module.
DYE COATING PROCESS STATIONS:
Coating the discs with the data carrying dye.
Discs are put on the chuck and held by the vacuum.
Dye is dispensed onto the surface at the center of the disc. At the same time the
disc which is being dispensed rotates slowly.
Disc is spun with 5000 rpm, dye spreads uniformly.
Spun-off dye is caught in the process cup.
Particles and dye vapors are sucked off at the edge of the process cup.
Components: 1. process cup
2. Motor
3. Chuck
DYE DISPENSE UNIT:
Bottom edge cleaning process station.
Recovering the dye heap (from below) from the outer edge of the disc by
dissolving via solvent.
17. N S K DRIVE:
Mega torque motor system is a unique actuator with special capabilities. System consists
of almost all servo motor systems.
Incorporated in two units:
1. motor
2. driver unit
1. Motor: Motor consists of a high torque brushless actuator, high resolution brushless
resolver and a heavy duty precision NSK bearing.
The high torque eliminates the need for gear reduction, while the built in resolver usually
makes feedback components such as encoders or techno meters unnecessary. The heavy
duty mechanical support since the motor case can very often support the load directly in
most applications.
2. Driver Unit: It consists of a power amplifier, resolver interfaces and the digital motor
control circuits.
The driver units provide everything that is needed to control the motor torque, velocity
position for interface to any standards motor position controller or to act as a standalone
digital motion control system with its built-in zero backlash position control capabilities.
High speed: It features higher speed than ever before with less torque drop-off at the
immediate speeds. Smaller motors may be used for high speed indexing applications
when torque management is primarily for accelerations.
EASE OF USE:
1. The circuit parameters can be changed by the command, rather than by alternating
to adjust a multi-turn pot or changing capacitor values.
18. 2. Significant changes can be made with little or no hazel wave changes.
HIGH REPEATABILITY:
With zero backlash direct drive this system offers repeatability as high as app. 2.1”.
Easy to maintain.
Login diagnosis outputs identity the nature of any error condition quickly and
accurately.
FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLE:
Motor by virtue of its unique design it is capable of producing extremely high torque at
low speeds suitable for direct applications. It can produce these torque levels without
using an undue amount of power, so it can sustain these torques levels indefinitely under
most condition without overheating.
19. 4. PNEUMATIC CYLINDER
Operation diagram of a single acting cylinder.
The spring (red) can also be outside the cylinder, attached to the item being moved.
Operation diagram of a double acting cylinder
Pneumatic cylinders impart a force by converting the potential energy of compressed gas
into kinetic energy. This is achieved by the compressed gas being able to expand, without
external energy input, which itself occurs due to the pressure gradient established by the
compressed gas being at a greater pressure than the atmospheric pressure. This air
expansion forces a piston to move in the desired direction. Once actuated, compressed air
enters into the tube at one end of the piston and, hence, imparts force on the piston.
Consequently, the piston becomes displaced (moved) by the compressed air expanding in
an attempt to reach atmospheric pressure.
Types:
Single acting cylinders: Single acting cylinders (SAC) use the pressure imparted
by compressed air to create a driving force in one direction (usually out), and a
spring to return to the "home" position.
Double acting cylinders: Double Acting Cylinders (DAC) use the force of air to
move in both extends and retract strokes. They have two ports to allow air in, one
for outstroke and one for in stroke.
Rotary air cylinders: actuators that use air to impart a rotary motion
Rod less air cylinders: These have no piston rod. They are actuators that use a
mechanical or magnetic coupling to impart force, typically to a table or other
body that moves along the length of the cylinder body, but does not extend
beyond it.
20. 5. SENSORS
A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which
can be read by an observer or by an instrument. For example, a mercury-in-glass
thermometer converts the measured temperature into expansion and contraction of a
liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass tube. A thermocouple converts temperature
to an output voltage which can be read by a voltmeter.
Uses:
Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons
(tactile sensor)
Lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base.
A sensor differs from a transducer in the way that a transducer converts one form of
energy into other form whereas a sensor converts the received signal into electrical form
only.
RESOLUTION:
The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it can detect in the quantity that it is
measuring. Often in a digital display, the least significant digit will fluctuate, indicating
that changes of that magnitude are only just resolved. The resolution is related to the
precision with which the measurement is made.
21. PROXIMITY SENSOR:
A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any
physical contact. A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic or electrostatic field,
or a beam of electromagnetic radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in
the field or return signal. The object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity
sensor's target. Different proximity sensor targets demand different sensors.
The maximum distance that this sensor can detect is defined "nominal range". Some
sensors have adjustments of the nominal range or means to report a graduated detection
distance.
Proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional life because of the
absence of mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between sensor and the sensed
object.
TYPES OF SENSORS:
Inductive
Capacitive
Capacitive displacement sensor
inductive sensor
CAPACITANCE SENSORS:
Capacitance sensors detect a change in capacitance when something or someone
approaches or touches the sensor. The technique has been used in industrial applications
for many years to measure liquid levels, humidity, and material composition. Integrated
circuits specifically designed to implement capacitance sensing in human-machine
interface applications are now available from Analog Devices.
WORKING OF CAPACITANCE SENSOR:
A basic sensor includes a receiver and a transmitter, each of which consists of metal
traces formed on layers of a printed-circuit board (PCB). As shown in Figure 1, the
22. AD714x has an on-chip excitation source, which is connected to the transmitter trace of
the sensor. Between the receiver and the transmitter trace, an electric field is formed.
Most of the field is concentrated between the two layers of the sensor PCB. However, a
fringe electric field extends from the transmitter, out of the PCB, and terminates back at
the receiver. The field strength at the receiver is measured by the on-chip sigma-delta
capacitance-to-digital converter. The electrical environment changes when a human hand
invades the fringe field, with a portion of the electric field being shunted to ground
instead of terminating at the receiver. The resultant decrease in capacitance—on the order
of femto farads as compared to Pico farads for the bulk of the electric field—is detected
by the converter
.
In general, there are three parts to the capacitance-sensing solution, all of which can be
supplied by Analog Devices.
The driver IC, which provides the excitation, the capacitance-to-digital converter,
and compensation circuitry to ensure accurate results in all environments.
The sensor—a PCB with a pattern of traces, such as buttons, scroll bars, scroll
wheels, or some combination. The traces can be copper, carbon, or silver, while
the PCB can be FR4, flex, PET, or ITO.
Software on the host microcontroller to implement the serial interface and the
device setup, as well as the interrupt service routine. For high-resolution sensors
such as scroll bars and wheels, the host runs a software algorithm to achieve high
resolution output. No software is required for buttons.
23. ADVANTAGES OF USING CAPACITIVE SENSORS:
Capacitance sensors are more reliable than mechanical sensors—for a number of
reasons.
There are no moving parts, so there is no wear and tear on the sensor, which is
protected by covering material,
INDUCTIVE SENSOR:
An inductive sensor is an electronic proximity sensor, which detects metallic objects
without touching them.
The sensor consists of an induction loop. Electric current generates a magnetic field,
which collapses generating a current that falls asymptotically toward zero from its initial
level when the input electricity ceases. The inductance of the loop changes according to
the material inside it and since metals are much more effective inductors than other
materials the presence of metal increases the current flowing through the loop. This
change can be detected by sensing circuitry, which can signal to some other device
whenever metal is detected.
Applications of inductive sensors :
metal detectors, traffic lights,
car washes,
host of automated industrial processes.
24. Elements of a simple inductive sensor..
Field sensors
Oscillator.
Demodulator.
Flip-flop.
Output
PHOTOELECTRIC SENSOR:
A photoelectric sensor, or photo eye, is a device used to detect the distance, absence, or
presence of an object by using a light transmitter, often infrared, and a photoelectric
receiver.
The object is detected when the beam light is blocked.
FUNCTIONAL TYPES:
Opposed arrangement: Receiver is located within the line os sight of the
transmitter. Object is detected when the beam is blocked from getting at the same
location.
Retro reflective: Transmitter and receiver are at the same location and uses
reflector to bounce light bean back to the receiver. Object id sensed when the
beam is interrupted.
Proximity sensing arrangement: Object is detected when the receiver sees the
transmitter source rather than when it fails to see it.
Some photo eyes have two different operational types, light operate and dark operate.
Light operate photo eyes become operational when the receiver "receives" the transmitter
signal. Dark operate photo eyes become operational when the receiver "does not receive"
the transmitter signal.
25. The detecting range of a photoelectric sensor is its "field of view", or the maximum
distance the sensor can retrieve information from, minus the minimum distance. A
minimum detectable object is the smallest object the sensor can detect. More accurate
sensors can often have minimum detectable objects of minuscule size.
REED SWITCH:
The reed switch is an electrical switch operated by an applied magnetic field.
The contacts can be:
Normally open, closing when a magnetic field is present.
Normally closed and opening when a magnetic field is applied.
The switch may be actuated by a coil, making a reed relay, or by bringing a magnet near
to the switch. Once the magnet is pulled away from the switch, the reed switch will go
back to its original position.
The reed switch contains a pair (or more) of magnetizable, flexible, metal reeds whose
end portions are separated by a small gap when the switch is open. The reeds are
hermetically sealed in opposite ends of a tubular glass envelope.
A magnetic field (from an electromagnet or a permanent magnet) will cause the reeds to
come together, thus completing an electrical circuit. The stiffness of the reeds causes
them to separate, and open the circuit, when the magnetic field ceases
USES:
Reed switches are used in reed relays.
Reed switches are widely used for electrical circuit control, particularly in the
communications field.
Reed switches actuated by magnets are commonly used in mechanical systems as
proximity switches as well as in door and window sensors in burglar alarm
systems and tamper proofing methods.
Reed switches are used in modern laptops which puts the laptop on
sleep/hibernation mode when the lid is closed.
26. LASER SENSORS:
A laser sensor is a device which uses a laser beam to determine the distance to an object.
It operates on the time of flight principle by sending a laser pulse in a narrow beam
towards the object and measuring the time taken by the pulse to be reflected off the target
and returned to the sender.
Due to the high speed of light, this technique is not appropriate for high precision sub-
millimeter measurements, where triangulation and other techniques are often used.
PULSE:
The pulse may be coded to reduce the chance that the rangefinder can be jammed. It is
possible to use Doppler effect techniques to judge whether the object is moving towards
or away from the rangefinder, and if so how fast.
RANGE:
Despite the beam being narrow, it will eventually spread over long distances due to the
divergence of the laser beam, as well as due to scintillation and beam wander effects,
caused by the presence of air bubbles in the air acting as lenses ranging in size from
microscopic to roughly half the height of the laser beam's path above the earth.
VACUUM SWITCHES:
Prior to effective engine control unit computers, engine vacuum was used for many
functions in an automobile. Vacuum switches were employed to regulate this flow, and
were commonly controlled by temperature, solenoids, mechanically, or directly. They
operated vacuum motors, other vacuum switches and other devices.
The internal combustion engine in a common automobile produces almost 20 inches (51
cm) of vacuum, and this pressure differential may be harnessed for many uses. Engine
vacuum is also the best direct source of information on the engine. Most delay valves
have a one-way function, where there is either no restriction or no movement in one
direction.
27. TYPES
Check valve: A valve that only allows the vacuum signal to move in one
direction. Often used with vacuum reservoirs.
Delay valve: A vacuum delay valve is a valve with a small orifice, which delays a
vacuum signal. These are commonly used in automobiles to alter the behavior of a
vacuum signal. Delay valves are usually color-coded to their function
SUCTION CUP:
A suction cup, also sometimes known as a sucker is an object that uses negative fluid
pressure of air or water to adhere to nonporous surfaces. They exist both as artificially
created devices, and as anatomical traits of some animals such as octopi and squid.
The working face of the suction cup has a curved surface. When the center of the suction
cup is pressed against a flat, non-porous surface, the volume of the space between the
suction cup and the flat surface is reduced, which causes the fluid between the cup and
the surface to be expelled past the rim of the circular cup.
One cup suction lifter
When the user ceases to apply physical pressure to the centre of the outside of the cup,
the elastic substance of which the cup is made, tends to resume its original, curved shape.
Because all of the fluid has already been forced out of the inside of the cup, the cavity
which tends to develop between the cup and the flat surface has little to no air or water in
it, and therefore lacks pressure. The pressure difference between the atmosphere on the
outside of the cup, and the low-pressure cavity on the inside of the cup, is what keeps the
cup adhered to the surface.
28. 6. PLC
INTRODUCTION:
A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is a computerized
for automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory
assembly lines, amusement rides, or light fixtures. PLCs are used in many industries and
machines. Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs
and output arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and
resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically
stored in battery-backed or non-volatile memory. A PLC is an example of a hard real
time system since output results must be produced in response to input conditions within
a bounded time, otherwise unintended operation will result.
29. HISTORY:
The PLC was invented in response to the needs of the American automotive
manufacturing industry. Programmable logic controllers were initially adopted by the
automotive industry where software revision replaced the re-wiring of hard-wired control
panels when production models changed.
Before the PLC, control, sequencing, and safety interlock logic for manufacturing
automobiles was accomplished using hundreds or thousands of relays, cam timers,
and drum sequencers and dedicated closed-loop controllers. The process for updating
such facilities for the yearly model change-over was very time consuming and expensive,
as electricians needed to individually rewire each and every relay.
Digital computers, being general-purpose programmable devices, were soon applied to
control of industrial processes. Early computers required specialist programmers, and
stringent operating environmental control for temperature, cleanliness, and power quality.
Using a general-purpose computer for process control required protecting the computer
from the plant floor conditions. An industrial control computer would have several
attributes: it would tolerate the shop-floor environment, it would support discrete (bit-
form) input and output in an easily extensible manner, it would not require years of
training to use, and it would permit its operation to be monitored. The response time of
any computer system must be fast enough to be useful for control; the required speed
varying according to the nature of the process.
DEVELOPMENT:
Early PLCs were designed to replace relay logic systems. These PLCs were programmed
in "ladder logic", which strongly resembles a schematic diagram of relay logic. This
program notation was chosen to reduce training demands for the existing technicians.
Other early PLCs used a form of instruction list programming, based on a stack-based
logic solver.
30. Modern PLCs can be programmed in a variety of ways, from ladder logic to more
traditional programming languages such as BASIC and C. Another method is State
Logic, a very high-level programming language designed to program PLCs based on state
transition diagrams.
Many early PLCs did not have accompanying programming terminals that were capable
of graphical representation of the logic, and so the logic was instead represented as a
series of logic expressions in some version of Boolean format, similar to Boolean
algebra. As programming terminals evolved, it became more common for ladder logic to
be used, for the aforementioned reasons and because it was a familiar format used for
electromechanical control panels. Newer formats such as State Logic and Function Block
(which is similar to the way logic is depicted when using digital integrated logic circuits)
exist, but they are still not as popular as ladder logic. A primary reason for this is that
PLCs solve the logic in a predictable and repeating sequence, and ladder logic allows the
programmer (the person writing the logic) to see any issues with the timing of the logic
sequence more easily than would be possible in other formats.
FUNCTIONALITY:
The functionality of the PLC has evolved over the years to include sequential relay
control, motion control, process control, distributed control systems and networking. The
data handling, storage, processing power and communication capabilities of some
modern PLCs are approximately equivalent to desktop computers. PLC-like
programming combined with remote I/O hardware, allow a general-purpose desktop
computer to overlap some PLCs in certain applications. Regarding the practicality of
these desktop computer based logic controllers, it is important to note that they have not
been generally accepted in heavy industry because the desktop computers run on less
stable operating systems than do PLCs, and because the desktop computer hardware is
typically not designed to the same levels of tolerance to temperature, humidity, vibration,
and longevity as the processors used in PLCs. In addition to the hardware limitations of
desktop based logic, operating systems such as Windows do not lend themselves to
deterministic logic execution, with the result that the logic may not always respond to
31. changes in logic state or input status with the extreme consistency in timing as is
expected from PLCs. Still, such desktop logic applications find use in less critical
situations, such as laboratory automation and use in small facilities where the application
is less demanding and critical, because they are generally much less expensive than
PLCs.
In more recent years, small products called PLRs (programmable logic relays), and also
by similar names, have become more common and accepted. These are very much like
PLCs, and are used in light industry where only a few points of I/O (i.e. a few signals
coming in from the real world and a few going out) are involved, and low cost is desired.
These small devices are typically made in a common physical size and shape by several
manufacturers, and branded by the makers of larger PLCs to fill out their low end product
range. Popular names include PICO Controller, NANO PLC, and other names implying
very small controllers. Most of these have between 8 and 12 digital inputs, 4 and 8 digital
outputs, and up to 2 analog inputs. Size is usually about 4" wide, 3" high, and 3" deep.
Most such devices include a tiny postage stamp sized LCD screen for viewing simplified
ladder logic (only a very small portion of the program being visible at a given time) and
status of I/O points, and typically these screens are accompanied by a 4-way rocker push-
button plus four more separate push-buttons, similar to the key buttons on a VCR remote
control, and used to navigate and edit the logic. Most have a small plug for connecting
via RS-232 or RS-485 to a personal computer so that programmers can use simple
Windows applications for programming instead of being forced to use the tiny LCD and
push-button set for this purpose. Unlike regular PLCs that are usually modular and
greatly expandable, the PLRs are usually not modular or expandable, but their price can
be two orders of magnitude less than a PLC and they still offer robust design and
deterministic execution of the logic.
SCAN TIME:
A PLC program is generally executed repeatedly as long as the controlled system is
running. The status of physical input points is copied to an area of memory accessible to
the processor, sometimes called the "I/O Image Table". The program is then run from its
32. first instruction run down to the last rung. It takes some time for the processor of the PLC
to evaluate all the ladders and update the I/O image table with the status of outputs. This
scan time may be a few milliseconds for a small program or on a fast processor, but older
PLCs running very large programs could take much longer (say, up to 100 ms) to execute
the program. If the scan time was too long, the response of the PLC to process conditions
would be too slow to be useful.
As PLCs became more advanced, methods were developed to change the sequence of
ladder execution, and subroutines were implemented. This simplified programming and
could also be used to save scan time for high-speed processes; parts of the program used,
for example, only for setting up the machine could be segregated from those parts
required to operate at higher speed.
Special-purpose I/O modules, such as timer modules or counter modules, could be used
where the scan time of the processor was too long to reliably pick up, for example,
counting pulses from a shaft encoder. The relatively slow PLC could still interpret the
counted values to control a machine, but the accumulation of pulses was done by a
dedicated module that was unaffected by the speed of the program execution.
SYSTEM SCALE:
A small PLC will have a fixed number of connections built in for inputs and outputs.
Typically, expansions are available if the base model has insufficient I/O.
Modular PLCs have a chassis (also called a rack) into which are placed modules with
different functions. The processor and selection of I/O modules is customised for the
particular application. Several racks can be administered by a single processor, and may
have thousands of inputs and outputs. A special high speed serial I/O link is used so that
racks can be distributed away from the processor, reducing the wiring costs for large
plants.
33. PROGRAMMING:
PLC programs are typically written in a special application on a personal computer, then
downloaded by a direct-connection cable or over a network to the PLC. The program is
stored in the PLC either in battery-backed-up RAM or some other non-volatile flash
memory. Often, a single PLC can be programmed to replace thousands of relays.[4]
Under the IEC 61131-3 standard, PLCs can be programmed using standards-based
programming languages. A graphical programming notation called Sequential Function
Charts is available on certain programmable controllers. Initially most PLCs utilized
Ladder Logic Diagram Programming, a model which emulated electromechanical control
panel devices (such as the contact and coils of relays) which PLCs replaced. This model
remains common today.
IEC 61131-3 currently defines five programming languages for programmable control
systems: function block diagram (FBD), ladder diagram(LD), structured text (ST; similar
to the Pascal programming language), instruction list (IL; similar to assembly language)
and sequential function chart (SFC). These techniques emphasize logical organization of
operations.[4]
While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming are common to all manufacturers,
differences in I/O addressing, memory organization and instruction sets mean that PLC
programs are never perfectly interchangeable between different makers. Even within the
same product line of a single manufacturer, different models may not be directly
compatible.
USER INTERFACE:
PLCs may need to interact with people for the purpose of configuration, alarm reporting
or everyday control. A human-machine interface (HMI) is employed for this purpose.
HMIs are also referred to as man-machine interfaces (MMIs) and graphical user interface
(GUIs). A simple system may use buttons and lights to interact with the user. Text
displays are available as well as graphical touch screens. More complex systems use
34. programming and monitoring software installed on a computer, with the PLC connected
via a communication interface.
COMMUNICATION:
PLCs have built in communications ports, usually 9-pin RS-232, but optionally EIA-
485 or Ethernet. Modbus, BAC net or DF1 is usually included as one of
the communications protocols. Other options include various field buses such as Device
Net or Profibus. Other communications protocols that may be used are listed in the List
of automation protocols.
Most modern PLCs can communicate over a network to some other system, such as a
computer running a SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) system or web
browser.
PLCs used in larger I/O systems may have peer-to-peer (P2P) communication between
processors. This allows separate parts of a complex process to have individual control
while allowing the subsystems to co-ordinate over the communication link. These
communication links are also often used for HMI devices such as keypads or PC-type
workstations.